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The Last Great Roman General? Belisarius and the Wars of Justinian (All Parts) — Transcript

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0:01532 AD.
0:02Constantinople, the greatest city in the world, is in flames.
0:11But this is no barbarian attack.
0:15Citizens of the Eastern Roman Empire are rioting, murdering state officials, and setting buildings
0:20on fire.
0:23Trapped inside his own palace, Emperor Justinian fears his reign is over.
0:28He’s already given into the mob’s demands, and sacked his most hated officials.
0:34But now the crowds acclaim a new emperor, Hypatius.
0:39It’s his wife, Empress Theodora, who’ll give him the courage to act.
0:45And his most trusted general, Belisarius, to whom he’ll turn to crush his enemies,
0:51and save the regime.
0:55After centuries of imperial crisis, Justinian’s reign will witness a Roman fightback that
1:02few had dreamed possible: great victories over the barbarians, the reconquest of Rome
1:09itself, the reunification of the empire.
1:14Belisarius is the commander who will lead this onslaught.
1:17He will be remembered as Rome’s last great general.
1:25527 AD.
1:36It’s more than 50 years since the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
1:46Rome itself, the Eternal City, is now part of an Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy.
1:53But though Rome may have fallen, the Empire endures.
1:58The Eastern Roman Empire remains a force to be reckoned with.
2:03An estimated 30 million people live under the rule of the Emperor in Constantinople.
2:09His authority stretches from the ravaged Balkans to the imperial breadbasket, Egypt; the Arabian
2:17desert, to the mountains of Armenia.
2:21This Christian Empire remains unrivalled in administrative sophistication, economic power,
2:28and military might.
2:30But the new emperor, Justinian, faces formidable challenges.
2:35In 527 he succeeds Justin, his uncle and adopted father, becoming the first son to succeed
2:43his father as emperor in more than a century.
2:47Justinian is from a tough, peasant background in Illyricum, what’s now North Macedonia.
2:53He’s highly educated, restless and driven, and sets himself two ambitious goals:
3:00First, to restore harmony in the Christian church, by ending the schism between Chalcedonian,
3:06or Orthodox, Christians and Miaphysites, who argue over Christ’s human and divine nature.
3:14Second, to reform and rationalise Roman law; the divinely-sanctioned institution that distinguishes
3:21the Roman world from the barbarian.
3:24“The imperial majesty should not only be adorned with arms but also be armed with laws,
3:31so that there may be good government in times both of war and peace,” he later declares.
3:40But as for any Roman emperor, the ultimate test of his legitimacy will come in war.
3:46For now, Justinian has good relations with the Vandals in North Africa, and the Ostrogoths
3:52in Italy.
3:53The Balkan frontier requires constant vigilance: the successors to Attila’s Hun empire are
4:00never quiet for long.
4:02But it’s in the east that Justinian faces his most immediate challenge – the Persian
4:07Sassanid Empire, a rival superpower of the Middle East.
4:12This frontier has been a battleground for centuries, and witnessed its share of Roman
4:17defeats, including one emperor captured, another killed.
4:22For most of the last century, the shared menace of the Huns led to a wary co-existence.
4:30But it could not last.
4:33In 525, the Christian king of Iberia in the Caucasus appealed to the Romans for aid, when
4:40the Persian King Kavadh tried to impose Zoroastrian rituals on his country.
4:45The Romans send military aid, and the conflict escalates, with both sides launching cross-border
4:52raids.
4:54When the Romans begin building a new fort at Minduos, the Persians attack, rout the
5:00Roman troops and destroy the building works.
5:05One of the Roman generals to escape this debacle is Flavius Belisarius.
5:12Clearly he is not blamed, because the next year Justinian makes him commander of all
5:16Roman troops in the East, though he’s barely thirty years old.
5:22Belisarius and the Emperor are old comrades, and come from similar rural backgrounds in
5:27the Balkans.
5:30His wife Antonina is the best friend of Empress Theodora.. and like her, from a low-born background
5:37- the daughter of an actress.
5:41With both Roman and Persian empires mobilising for war, the next year, 530, will see Belisarius’s
5:49first major test as a commander.
5:52The troops that Belisarius commands are far removed from the famous legions, with which
5:58Rome conquered its empire centuries ago.
6:02Hard lessons, learned from fighting Huns and Persians, have helped to forge a new Roman
6:08army.
6:09For centuries, cavalry was the neglected arm of the Roman military – a role usually outsourced
6:17to foreign auxiliaries.
6:19Now heavy armoured cavalry, known as clibanarii and cataphracti, armed with lance and sword,
6:26form the army’s elite shock units.
6:32Some armoured cavalry, as well as koursoures light cavalry, also carry bows.
6:37The Romans, in imitation of the Huns and Persian, are now horse archers themselves.
6:44The best units are the bucellarii – the ‘biscuit-eaters’, named after the army
6:49ration.
6:50These handpicked soldiers form a general’s personal regiment.
6:55Long service, good pay and equipment, plus a personal oath of loyalty, make them his
7:00most reliable troops.
7:04Roman archers are now armed with the more powerful composite, reflex bows of the Huns.
7:10And while infantry still made up around two-thirds of a Roman army, its role is more defensive,
7:17forming a secure base from which the cavalry could launch its attacks.
7:22The standard infantry unit is also smaller, called a numerus in Latin, arithmos in Greek
7:29– about regimental size, from 1,000 to 1,500 men.
7:34They’re more mixed, with armoured veterans to form a fulcum, or shield wall, and more
7:40missile troops behind them, to unleash a barrage of arrows, javelins and darts.
7:47Finally – Rome boosts its military strength by recruiting the very ‘barbarians’ it
7:52had once despised, including Huns, Goths and Heruli.
7:57Those outside the empire are recruited as mercenaries.
8:01Those within serve as foederati (federates), and are usually commanded by their own officers.
8:09The military organisation of the empire has also been overhauled.
8:14Two central field armies, stationed on either side of the Bosporus, are commanded by a Magister
8:20Militum Praesentalis, and form a strategic reserve.
8:25Field armies based in Thrace, Illyria, Armenia and the East, are each commanded by a Magister
8:32Millitum, and form regional, rapid-reaction forces.
8:37The frontiers are held by the limitanei.
8:40These are the lowest paid and least well-equipped troops, only expected to hold their fortified
8:45outposts until reinforcements arrive.
8:49Limitanei are organised into local groups, each commanded by a dux – origin of our
8:55word duke.
8:57“Yet the thought has many times occurred to me, how many and how great are the benefits
9:04which accrue to states through History, which transmits to future generations the memory
9:10of those who have gone before, and resists the steady effort of time to bury events in
9:15oblivion.”
9:20The historian Procopius is our key witness for the events of this period.
9:26He was born around 500 in the city of Caesarea in Palestine, and received a first class education.
9:33In 527, he was appointed assessor, or legal advisor, to Belisarius.
9:39He effectively became the general’s secretary, and on occasion, aide-de-camp.
9:45Working from notes and writing in Greek, he would publish his great work, History of the
9:50Wars, in 551.
9:52Procopius’s account is highly favourable to Belisarius.
9:56But there will be a sting in the tail – a scandalous ‘Secret History’, which will
10:01emerge later in the tale...
10:06530 AD.
10:09King Kavadh sends an army to capture the Roman frontier fortress at Dara.
10:15Today the ruins of Dara lie on the Turkish-Syrian border, their scale hinting at the size of
10:22the Roman fortress that once stood here.
10:27Belisarius is warned that 40,000 Persian troops are advancing on Dara.
10:31He can only assemble 25,000 troops to meet them.
10:36For reasons that are unclear, Belisarius decides to make his stand outside the city walls,
10:43to the south.
10:44His men dig ditches to strengthen their position, with both flanks thrown forward.
10:50The infantry is placed in the centre, with cavalry on both flanks.
10:55Two groups of 600 Hun mercenaries are positioned between them, in support.
11:01At the rear, he places his reserve, his own bucellarii.
11:07When the huge Persian army arrives before Dara, Belisarius is ready and waiting.
11:16The first day begins with a stand off.
11:18The two generals exchange letters: Belisarius urges Firouz to withdraw, to allow time for
11:26further negotiations; Firouz tells the Roman to prepare his bath - he intends to be in
11:32Dara by nightfall.
11:35The Persians launch one probing attack against the Roman left wing, perhaps testing their
11:41defences.
11:42The Persians are driven off with seven killed.
11:48When a young Persian warrior rides between the lines, and challenges any Roman to face
11:53him in single combat, his offer is accepted by Andreas.
11:59Andreas has no military training, but he’s a wrestling instructor of huge strength.
12:04Before the Persian knows what’s happening, Andreas has knocked him off his horse with
12:08his lance, then dismounts to finish him off, like a sacrificial animal, in the words of
12:15Procopius.
12:17Andreas later kills a second Persian challenger, to Roman cheers, and the dismay of the Persians.
12:28The next morning Firouz receives 10,000 reinforcements, bringing his total strength to 50,000.
12:36With odds of two to one in his favour, he decides to attack.
12:42Firouz forms up his army with infantry and foot archers in the centre, and his Persian
12:48heavy cavalry, the feared savaran, on both wings.
12:52He also divides his army into two parts: a front line, and a reserve line, so that fresh
12:58troops can be rotated into the fighting.
13:01He keeps a unit of Immortals, the elite Persian heavy cavalry, as his personal reserve.
13:09But first, he waits.
13:11He knows the Romans usually eat in the morning, and are growing hungry, while his own troops
13:17are accustomed to eating later in the day.
13:20Finally, at noon, he gives the order.
13:23The Persian army advances to within bowshot, and both armies unleash a storm of arrows.
13:32Persia is famed for the skill of its archers.
13:34But today, the wind favours the Romans.
13:38When the archers run out of arrows, the Persian cavalry begins its advance.
13:45This is the moment Belisarius has prepared for.
13:49The savaran crash into his left wing, driving the Roman horsemen back.
13:53But the Persians haven’t spotted 300 Heruli horsemen, hidden behind a slope on the Roman
14:03left, waiting for this moment.
14:06They rush out from cover and attack the Persian cavalry from behind.
14:10Then 600 Huns fall on their flank.
14:14Under this onslaught, the Persian cavalry turns and flees, with heavy losses.
14:23Firouz switches to the other flank, attacking with his heavy cavalry supported by the elite
14:29Immortals.
14:30The Roman cavalry breaks under the pressure, streaming back to the walls of Dara.
14:38But Belisarius has seen the threat.
14:41He recalls the Huns that are pursuing the Persian right wing, and launches both Hun
14:46groups, as well as his own Bucellarii, against the flank and rear of the Persian attack.
14:53It’s the decisive moment of the battle.
14:57The Persian left wing suddenly finds itself under attack from three sides.
15:02Those that can’t escape are cut down.
15:09Sunicas, one of the Hun captains, kills a Persian standard-bearer, then General Barsham
15:15himself, who commands the Persian left wing.
15:19With the elite units of the Persian army in flight, the infantry offer little resistance.
15:27Most are peasant conscripts, no match for Roman cavalry.
15:32Soon the entire Persian army is in rout.
15:36Belisarius, content with his victory, and unwilling to risk any last-minute reverse,
15:43halts the pursuit.
15:46Procopius tells us 8,000 Persians lay dead on the battlefield, a number that could be
15:52accurate.
15:54“For on that day the Persians had been defeated in battle by the Romans, a thing which had
16:05not happened for a long time.”
16:10Belisarius has won a brilliant victory for the Empire.
16:14Later that year Sittas, Magister Militum of Armenia, wins another victory over the Persians
16:20at Satala.
16:22The war is swinging in Rome’s favour.
16:26But the following year, encouraged by a Samaritan revolt in Palestine, King Kavadh orders a
16:32large-scale raid along the Euphrates River.
16:38Belisarius assembles an army to meet them.
16:41But having ravaged Roman territory, the Persians are content to withdraw with their loot.
16:48Belisarius shadows them.
16:50His subordinates urge him to destroy the enemy before they escape.
16:54So against his better judgement, he attacks the Persians the day before Easter Sunday,
17:00at Callinicum.
17:03The battle is a disaster.
17:07Rome’s Arab allies, the Ghassanids, hold the right flank.
17:12But Procopius accuses them of fleeing at the first sign of danger.
17:18Persian cavalry rolls up the entire Roman line.
17:23In desperation, the Roman infantry form a shield wall with their backs to the river.
17:31They hold off the enemy cavalry, buying time for the remains of the army to escape across
17:36the river.
17:38Callinicum is a humiliation for Rome, and for Belisarius.
17:44His own role in the battle is unclear.
17:46According to Procopius he remained with the infantry, organising the retreat.
17:53Another source claims he was among the first to flee.
17:56It had clearly been a serious blunder to give in to pressure from his subordinates, to fight
18:01an unnecessary battle.
18:04Belisarius is removed from command, and recalled to Constantinople.
18:11Justinian is forced to pay a subsidy and make a compromise peace with Persia.
18:17Not with King Kavadh, who dies that year, but with his 20-year-old son, Khosrow.
18:22Khosrow will prove to be the greatest of all Sassanian kings, hailed as Anushirvan, the
18:30Immortal Soul - and will prove a dangerous rival to the Romans.
18:39When major rioting breaks out in Constantinople the next year, Belisarius is in the capital,
18:46eager to restore his tarnished reputation.
18:50The riots have been instigated by the factions of the Hippodrome, the Greens and Blues.
18:57These are more than chariot-racing fans – the factions run whole areas of the city.
19:03At first they seek only the release of jailed comrades.
19:06But then, there are calls for a new emperor - Hypatius, nephew of Emperor Anastasius.
19:13It’s likely that Justinian’s rivals in the Senate are now pulling the strings.
19:23Justinian hesitates.
19:24He wonders if they should flee the capital.
19:28Then Theodora speaks up.
19:32Life as a fugitive, she declares, would be unendurable.
19:36Better the old saying, “royal purple makes a noble shroud.”
19:41In others words, better to go down fighting.
19:46The Emperor is emboldened by Theodora’s words, and orders Belisarius, and another
19:53general, Mundus, to crush the revolt.
19:55Belisarius’s hardened troops launch a sudden attack on the rioters.
20:01There is no mercy.
20:03The streets run with blood.
20:08The final death toll is estimated at 30,000 – a staggering 1 in 20 of the city’s population.
20:19The next day, Justinian orders the execution of Hypatius and his brother, probably innocent
20:26pawns in somebody else’s plot.
20:29Their bodies are tossed into the sea.
20:32Thanks to Theodora and Belisarius, Justinian’s throne is safe... for now.
20:41A Roman Emperor relied on one quality more than any other from his generals – loyalty.
20:49Belisarius has proved his beyond doubt.
20:53Now Justinian needs to shore up support for his regime, assert his legitimacy and God’s
21:00favour – with a military victory.
21:03He has his costly peace with the Sassanid Empire.
21:06So he will turn west.
21:09A war to reclaim Rome’s lost provinces from the barbarians will be a service to God and
21:16Justinian.
21:18Such a mission can be entrusted to only one man – Belisarius.
21:35When the Western Roman Empire was overrun by ‘barbarians’ in the 5th century, the
21:41Vandals emerged as perhaps the most enterprising of Rome’s enemies.
21:46From central Europe, they marched, killed and looted their way through Roman territory…
21:51into Spain… and in 429, crossed into North Africa under the leadership of King Geiseric
21:57There, he founded a kingdom, and took up piracy with skill and enthusiasm.
22:06In 455 Geiseric sacked Rome itself.
22:1275 years later, Eastern Romans and Vandals had learned to tolerate each other.
22:20Emperor Justinian’s relations with the Vandal king Hilderic were in fact extremely cordial.
22:25The two men exchanged gifts, and though Justinian regretted that Hilderic was an Arian heretic,
22:31he was pleased that he did at least allow Orthodox Christians in his realm to live in
22:37peace.
22:38Then, in 530 AD, there was a coup in the Kingdom of the Vandals.
22:46Gelimer, Hilderic’s cousin and heir, seized power and imprisoned the ex-king.
22:53Unlike his hapless predecessor, humiliated in war by the Berber tribes, Gelimer was a
22:59proven warrior, and cunning to boot.
23:03When Justinian scolded Gelimer as a usurper, the new Vandal king warned the Emperor to
23:09mind his own affairs…
23:10Then, for good measure, blinded one of Hilderic’s nephews.
23:17Three years pass.
23:19Justinian makes peace with the Sassanid Empire, and survives the Nika Riots.
23:24Now, he decides, it’s time to teach Gelimer a lesson.
23:31Imperial propaganda, and the historian Procopius, will later portray Justinian’s war on the
23:37Vandals as part of a long-held plan to reconquer the western empire, “for the sake of true
23:43belief in God and the liberty of our subjects”.
23:49Modern historians are more sceptical.
23:52Justinian needs a victory to bolster his regime.
23:55Gelimer’s actions have provided just provocation.
23:58And the recovery of North Africa’s wealthy estates will bring obvious benefits.
24:04Perhaps self-interest, opportunism and a sense of divine, imperial mission all play a part
24:11in his decision to go to war.
24:17Many try to dissuade the Emperor.
24:19His senior advisor, John of Cappadocia, warns of the hazards and cost of a long-range, seaborne
24:26operation.
24:27His generals are haunted by the fate of the last Roman expedition to North Africa – a
24:32huge fleet destroyed by Vandal fireships off Cape Bon.
24:38Justinian is not deterred.
24:40He orders the fleet and army to assemble at Constantinople.
24:45Belisarius, restored to the rank of Magister Militum per Orientem, General of the East,
24:53is given complete authority over the campaign.
24:57His force includes 10,000 infantry, under the command of John of Dyrrachium; 5,000 cavalry,
25:06divided between foederati and regular Roman units; as well as 600 Hun mercenaries, 400
25:13Heruli mercenaries, and Belisarius’s own Bucellarii, probably around 1,000 men.
25:19An old comrade, John of Armenia, will be his second-in-command; Solomon, a eunuch, his
25:26chief staff officer.
25:29It is not a large army, but most are hardened veterans from the wars in the East.
25:36Belisarius will also be accompanied by his wife, Antonina - an arrangement that doubtless
25:41provokes comments from conservative Romans, but seems to have been generally accepted.
25:46She will prove an insightful and effective ally to her husband, as well as a valuable
25:52agent to her patron and friend, Empress Theodora.
25:57The fleet sets sail in June, 533.
26:04Belisarius believes that much will depend on the discipline of his men.
26:08But before they’ve even cleared the Hellespont, two Hun mercenaries drunkenly murder a comrade.
26:19Belisarius has them hanged in full view of the fleet.
26:24Then he addresses the army.
26:27"If I were speaking to men going to war for the first time, I might struggle to persuade
26:34you that justice can be our greatest ally in obtaining victory.
26:40For those who don’t understand the fortunes of war think the outcome depends on strength
26:45alone…
26:46But you, I think, know that although it’s men who do the fighting, it is God who judges
26:53the contest.”
26:57This is why, Belisarius warns them, he will never turn a blind eye to their crimes.
27:02He concludes:
27:03“I shall not consider any one of you my comrade, no matter how fearsome he is to the
27:09enemy, unless his hands are clean.”
27:14The fleet continues its voyage, making stops to pick up supplies and additional troops.
27:21Along the way 500 men die from eating mouldy bread, which Procopius blames on cost-cutting
27:28measures by the stingy John of Cappadocia.
27:31In Sicily, Belisarius receives fresh supplies from the Goths.
27:36There, as he ponders his next move, he receives stunning news:
27:41Not only are the Vandals completely unaware of his expedition, but Gelimer has sent his
27:46brother Tzazo, with most of the Vandal fleet and 5,000 troops, to quell a revolt in Sardinia.
27:55Belisarius might have been tempted to land in Tripolitania – where Romanized locals
28:00are already in revolt against the Vandals.
28:03But reassured by the absence of the Vandal fleet, he decides to land in the Vandal heartland,
28:10within striking distance of their capital, Carthage.
28:13The landing is unopposed.
28:19But Belisarius is furious when some of his men steal from the locals.
28:24He has them punished, then speaks once more to the troops.
28:30“…the Libyans, being Romans from of old, are unfaithful and hostile to the Vandals…
28:36now your lack of self-control has made the opposite true.”
28:40He warns them that lawlessness will lose them the support of the people, and lead only to
28:46defeat and death.
28:48But with good behaviour…
28:49“…you will have God on your side, the Libyan people will support you, and the Vandals
28:55will be at your mercy.”
28:59Belisarius orders some of his most trusted men to infiltrate a nearby town, Syllectum,
29:04to see if the people will come over to the Roman side.
29:09The soldiers enter discreetly at dawn.
29:13They inform local elders that Belisarius has come to overthrow Gelimer the usurper, and
29:19restore their freedom.
29:20The townsmen agree to let the army into the city, and open the market to them.
29:28Belisarius is gracious and generous to the Libyans.
29:31Crucially, his men behave well.
29:34They pay for supplies, and win the trust of the locals.
29:38Procopius, an eyewitness, records that from henceforth, the campaign is like moving through
29:44their own country.
29:49Belisarius begins his advance along the coastal road to Carthage.
29:53He knows Gelimer is somewhere inland, and could strike from almost any direction.
30:01So he orders John of Armenia, his second-in-command, to take 300 bucellarii and scout 2 miles ahead
30:08of the main army.
30:12Belisarius himself commands a strong rearguard.
30:14The Huns are posted as a flank guard, 2 miles inland.
30:21Their sea flank is protected by the fleet, keeping pace with the army’s advance.
30:28The army marches about 10 miles each day, then fortifies a camp at night.
30:35When Gelimer receives news of the Roman landing, he sends a message to his brother Ammatas
30:41in Carthage.
30:44First he is to execute Hilderic and the other prisoners.
30:48Then he is to gather all his men, and join Gelimer at Ad Decimum, where they will ambush
30:55and destroy Belisarius’s army.
30:57Ad Decimum, 10 miles south of Carthage.
31:03Here the coastal road passes through a narrow gap between a salt marsh and the sea.
31:10Gelimer knows Belisarius will have to pass this way, and that the headland of Cape Bon
31:15will separate him from his fleet.
31:20Ammatas is to hold the road to Carthage, and when the Romans are fully engaged, Gelimer
31:26and his nephew Gibamund will fall on their flank and rear.
31:32Belisarius and his army approach.
31:35Roman patrols report skirmishes with the Vandals.
31:39Gelimer is close.
31:43A few miles short of Ad Decimum, Belisarius gives the order to make camp, and sends John’s
31:49vanguard ahead to scout the road.
31:52At Ad Decimum, they find Ammatas, with just a handful of troops.
31:57He has arrived too early.
32:00The rest of his men are still strung out on the road to Carthage.
32:04John and the bucellarii charge.
32:08Ammatas fights bravely, killing 12 men before he is cut down.
32:14The Vandal survivors flee back towards Carthage, with John and his men in pursuit.
32:20Groups of Vandals coming up the road see the fleeing horsemen.
32:24They think the whole Roman army must be headed their way.
32:28They panic and join the rout.
32:30John and his men slay all the Vandals they can catch.
32:36Meanwhile, on the edge of the salt lake, the Huns have encountered Gibamund’s column.
32:44According to a Hun custom, a single warrior rides forward to meet the enemy.
32:52This is the first time Gibamund and his men have faced Huns… but they know their fearsome
32:58reputation.
33:00They are unnerved by the lone horseman, and suspect a trap.
33:05When the Huns charge, the Vandals quickly turn and flee.
33:10Gibamund is one of those killed in the rout.
33:15Gelimer is advancing between low hills that block his view of both Belisarius’s camp,
33:21and the fate of Gibamund.
33:25Belisarius is also unaware that battle has been joined, but sends his foederati cavalry
33:31forward, expecting some skirmishing with the Vandals.
33:36When his cavalry reach Ad Decimum, they see signs of fighting, and bodies.
33:43Then several thousand Vandal horsemen appear behind them.
33:48The foederati commanders have no idea whether to advance or retreat.
33:53After a brief clash, the entire force retreats back towards the Roman camp.
33:59Gelimer is now in position to deal Belisarius a serious blow: if he heads north, he can
34:06trap and destroy John’s isolated vanguard.
34:10If he moves south, he can hit the Roman cavalry while it’s still confused and disordered.
34:16Instead, Gelimer discovers the body of his brother Ammatas, and is overcome with grief.
34:24As their king oversees his brother’s burial, his perplexed troops look on, and do nothing.
34:32Belisarius is given a crucial breathing space.
34:35He rallies his cavalry, reorganises them, and leads them forward.
34:41The Roman cavalry fall on the Vandals with devastating force.
34:47The enemy are scattered.
34:48Gelimer and the survivors fly west.
34:52The road to Carthage is open.
34:56“And it fell to Belisarius that day to win more fame than any other man of his time,
35:04or indeed any of the men of olden times.”
35:07Belisarius, wary of ambush, waits till dawn the next day before making his triumphal entry
35:15into Carthage.
35:17Once more, his troops behave well.
35:20The citizens of Carthage are respected.
35:24This peaceful occupation of such a wealthy city, in such times, is remarkable.
35:31Belisarius sits on Gelimer’s throne, and eats the lunch that had been prepared for
35:36him.
35:37He attends to the requests and pleas of local citizens.
35:42But the Vandals aren’t beaten yet.
35:47Belisarius receives news - intended for Gelimer – that Tzazo has put down the Sardinian
35:53revolt, and is returning with 5,000 men.
35:57Reinforced, Gelimer advances on Carthage.
36:03Belisarius leads out his army to face him, at Tricamarum.
36:09The Roman cavalry camps near a small brook… where the Vandals catch them off guard, deploying
36:15for battle while the Romans are still making lunch.
36:18But again, Gelimer fails to exploit an advantage.
36:23He does nothing, as the Romans deploy... and their infantry, which had fallen behind on
36:29the march from Carthage, gets into position.
36:32It’s the Romans who attack first, when John of Armenia leads the bucellarii forward, against
36:40the Vandal centre.
36:42Twice, he is repulsed.
36:47But the third attack is made with greater force.
36:50Tzazo himself is killed within sight of Gelimer.
36:59Belisarius orders the rest of his army forward.
37:03The Vandals flee, leaving behind 800 dead.
37:08The Romans have lost just 50 men.
37:12The Vandals take refuge in their camp, which contains all their baggage, and their families.
37:19But when Belisarius brings up his infantry to begin the assault, King Gelimer flees.
37:25The fight is entirely one-sided.
37:29Panic soon engulfs the Vandal camp, as everyone tries to escape.
37:34The Romans kill the men, enslave the women and children, and plunder all they can find.
37:43Belisarius cannot restore discipline until the morning.
37:47Gelimer flees towards the mountains.
37:51Belisarius sends John in pursuit with 200 horsemen, but five days later, John is accidentally
37:57killed by one of his own men.
38:01Belisarius grieves at the death of his old comrade.
38:03He sends Pharas and his Heruli to take over the pursuit of Gelimer.
38:11The Vandal king takes refuge with the Berber tribes.
38:15Three months later, hunger, and the promise of comfort and clemency, persuades him to
38:24surrender.
38:25Meanwhile, Belisarius sends one of his officers to Sardinia with the head of the king’s
38:31brother, Tzazo.
38:33The island quickly submits to Roman rule, as too does Corsica.
38:39From Carthage, detachments and emissaries travel east and west, as North Africa rejoins
38:46the Roman Empire.
38:50Settlements and outposts still suffer Berber raids.
38:53But Belisarius delegates this war to his able staff officer, Solomon.
38:59He sails for Constantinople with his prisoners, and a vast quantity of loot.
39:05He has learned that a small group of officers, motivated by envy and ambition, have told
39:11the Emperor that Belisarius plans to found his own kingdom in North Africa.
39:18Belisarius soon persuades Justinian in person that this is all lies, and his loyalty is
39:25absolute.
39:26The Emperor rewards him with a triumph – the victory parade with which, for a thousand
39:32years, the Romans had celebrated their greatest conquests.
39:36It’s the first triumph to be awarded to anyone but an Emperor in 500 years.
39:43He is also awarded the title of Consul – once the senior political office in the Roman Republic,
39:50long since reduced to an honorary title.
39:53Belisarius’s loot, including much of what the Vandals had plundered from Rome, is paraded
40:00in front of the citizens of Constantinople, and the Emperor… along with his prisoners,
40:06including King Gelimer himself, who is heard to mutter words from the Old Testament…
40:12“Vanity of vanities… all is vanity.”
40:16“…whether such events as these ever took place before I am not able to say: the Vandal
40:27kingdom at the height of its wealth and military strength, completely undone in so short a
40:32time by 5,000 men… For such was the number of horsemen who followed Belisarius, and carried
40:39through the whole war against the Vandals.
40:42For whether this happened by chance or valour, one would justly marvel at it.”
40:49Known to history as the Vandalic War, Belisarius’s campaign has reclaimed one of the Roman Empire’s
40:56wealthiest provinces in just 6 months, with minimal losses.
41:02The Battle of Dara had proven his skill as a tactical commander.
41:07In North Africa, his victory comes through discipline and diplomacy, and a brilliantly
41:13successful hearts and minds campaign.
41:18But already, it’s clear there are those within the Empire who resent such success,
41:23and seek his downfall.
41:28Belisarius will not have long to rest on his laurels.
41:32A murder in far-off Tuscany is about to lead to his most formidable challenge yet…
41:37The victim is Amalasuntha, daughter of Theoderic the Great.
41:43Her death means war between the Eastern Empire and the Goths – a war that will lead Belisarius
41:51to the gates of Rome itself.
42:03Sixty years have passed since the Western Roman Empire fell to barbarians.
42:10Many kings emerged to rule over its shattered remains.
42:15Above them all, towered Theoderic the Great.
42:20With Eastern Roman approval, he’d led his Ostrogoth warbands from the Balkans into Italy.
42:27He overthrew and killed Odoacer, the man who’d deposed the last Western Emperor, and forged
42:33his own Goth superstate.
42:36Theoderic, an Arian Christian, worked with the Senate in Rome, and sought close relations
42:42with the Eastern Roman Empire.
42:45To Emperor Anastasius, he wrote, “Our royalty is an imitation of yours, modelled on your
42:52good purpose, a copy of the only Empire.”
42:56Procopius, the 6th century historian and aide to Belisarius, would himself praise Theoderic
43:04as “in name a tyrant, but in fact an emperor, no less than any who’ve ever distinguished
43:10themselves in that office.”
43:12In the eyes of his supporters, Theoderic had revived the Western Roman Empire in all but
43:21name.
43:22But the succession would unravel his great achievement.
43:27Theoderic had three daughters.
43:28So his heir was to have been his son-in-law Eutharic.
43:32But he died four years before the king, in 522.
43:37The succession passed to Theoderic’s 10-year-old grandson Athalaric.
43:41His mother, the highly educated and formidable Amalasuntha, ruled as regent.
43:48In defending her position, Amalasuntha made powerful enemies among the Goths… and when
43:53her son died aged just 18… one of those enemies, her cousin Theodohad, became king.
44:03In 535, he has Amalasuntha imprisoned on an island in the middle of Lake Bolsena.
44:11Weeks later, assassins arrive.
44:14They’re rumoured to be vengeful relatives of men Amalasuntha had had killed during her
44:20regency.
44:22The daughter of Theoderic the Great is strangled in her bath.
44:27Theodohad thinks he can quietly eliminate his rival without repercussions.
44:32But Amalasuntha had been a trusted ally of the Emperor Justinian.
44:39And he is looking for an excuse for war…
44:45“And the emperor, upon learning what had befallen Amalasuntha, immediately entered
44:52upon the war, being in the ninth year of his reign.”
44:56For Justinian, chaos at the Ostrogoth court presents an opportunity.
45:03After success in North Africa, he wants Italy for the Empire – the strategic and symbolic
45:10gains will be immense.
45:11Before her death, Amalasuntha had offered him the kingdom in exchange for political
45:17asylum.
45:20Now Justinian pressures Theodohad – a notoriously corrupt and greedy man – to accept the same
45:27deal...
45:28or face war.
45:30Justinian’s tough diplomacy is backed up by military deployments: Mundus, commanding
45:37the army in Illyria, advances into Goth-controlled Dalmatia, and takes Salona – the modern
45:44city of Split.
45:46Belisarius, meanwhile, is ordered to sail with 9,000 men to Sicily, to see if the Goths
45:53there will put up a fight.
45:56Only the garrison of Palermo offers resistance, which is soon overcome.
46:02The rest of Sicily submits to the Romans without a fight.
46:06On the last day of 535, Belisarius marks the end of his Consulship, scattering coins to
46:15the crowds in Syracuse as his troops march triumphantly through the city.
46:22As negotiations continue in the Goth capital Ravenna, between Theodohad and Justinian’s
46:28envoy, Solomon – Praetorian Prefect of North Africa - arrives in Sicily, with alarming
46:34news from Carthage.
46:36The army, angered by late pay and religious discrimination, has murdered its officers,
46:43and mutinied.
46:46Belisarius immediately sails for Carthage with just 100 picked men.
46:53His own formidable reputation, plus generous handouts of cash, quickly secures the loyalty
46:59of 2,000 troops, whom he leads out to face the 9,000 mutineers.
47:03The mutineer army is a motley crew of Romans, mercenaries, renegade Vandals and escaped
47:12slaves, commanded by Stotzas, a former bucellarius.
47:17They have no generals, and little discipline.
47:21When Stotzas tries to manoeuvre his army into a better position, it becomes badly disordered.
47:28Belisarius immediately launches an all-out attack.
47:35Stotzas and his army turn and run.
47:44Belisarius has saved Carthage.
47:46But the war in North Africa against Berbers and rebels will drag on for 15 more years.
47:53This task falls to Solomon, as Belisarius must race back to Sicily to quash another
47:58mutiny among his own troops.
48:01In the Balkans, meanwhile, a Goth counterattack results in the death of General Mundus and
48:06his son, and the Romans make a tactical withdrawal.
48:11When news of this minor triumph reaches King Theodohad, he feels suddenly emboldened, and
48:18rejects all Justinian’s demands.
48:22Belisarius receives new orders.
48:25He is to cross the Strait of Messina, and reconquer Italy from the Ostrogoths.
48:33Belisarius lands in Italy with barely 8,000 men.
48:37The bulk of his troops are infantry, including 3,000 Isaurians - fierce warriors from the
48:43Taurus Mountains of Anatolia.
48:46His cavalry includes Hun and Berber mercenaries, as well as the elite bucellarii – the picked
48:53troops maintained by Belisarius, and other senior commanders.
48:58As in North Africa, he is accompanied on campaign by his wife Antonina, a capable and trusted
49:04ally of Empress Theodora.
49:09That the Emperor entrusts the campaign to such a small force – when the Goths can
49:14field an army four times its size – indicates Justinian’s supreme confidence in Belisarius.
49:22But it is also a sign that he has badly underestimated the Goths, and their will to fight.
49:29Belisarius’s army is welcomed by Southern Italians, and meets no opposition as far as
49:38Naples.
49:39This city has strong walls and a garrison of 800 Goths.
49:45Belisarius appeals directly to its citizens, urging them to throw open the gates, and warning
49:51of the dire consequences of an assault.
49:53“I pray that an ancient city, which has long been inhabited by Christians and Romans,
50:00may not meet with such a fortune, especially at my hands as a commander of Roman troops.”
50:08The citizens of Naples are divided, but ultimately, their leaders reject the demand to hand over
50:15the city.
50:18When Belisarius’s troops sneak into the city using an old aqueduct, there is a savage
50:23slaughter of Goths and Italian citizens alike… until the general can restore order.
50:33The main Ostrogoth army has been standing idle, 60 miles to the north.
50:38Theodohad, never suited to military command and now unsettled by omens, does nothing to
50:45save Naples.
50:46It’s his own death sentence.
50:49He is deposed, and killed.
50:53Vitigis becomes the new king of the Ostrogoths.
50:56He is in his 60s, but he’s an experienced soldier who fought alongside Theoderic the
51:01Great.
51:03He assumes that Belisarius must be leading a large army up from the south, and wants
51:09more time to gather his forces.
51:13He also plans to negotiate a truce with the Franks, which will free up more troops for
51:18the war against the Romans.
51:21So leaving 4,000 men to hold Rome, Vitigis withdraws to Ravenna.
51:30Belisarius garrisons Naples, and advances up the old Roman road, the Via Latina, to
51:36Rome.
51:38But as he nears the great city… the Goths simply abandon it.
51:44They march out thought the Porta Flaminia, as Belisarius and his army march in through
51:50the Porta Asinaria – a gate which, though much restored, survives to this day.
51:5760 years after the fall of the Western Empire, Rome once more belongs to the Romans.
52:06Belisarius duly despatches the keys to the city to Emperor Justinian.
52:12Rome in the 6th century is still a great city, but a shadow of its former glory.
52:21In its imperial heyday, Rome’s population had been around half a million – now it’s
52:27just a fifth of that.
52:29But it remains the seat of the Roman Senate, and the Pope, and a city of intense emotional
52:35and cultural significance to all Romans.
52:39The city is also notoriously difficult to defend – which is why the Goths have abandoned
52:45it.
52:46The famous Aurelian Walls are crumbling, and at 12 miles in length, are too long for a
52:52small army to easily hold.
52:55The Goths had also worried about Rome’s large population, that might turn against
53:00them.
53:03Belisarius is down to 7,000 men - not enough to face the Goths in open battle.
53:09So he sends detachments to garrison key strongholds along the Via Flaminia, the road to Ravenna..
53:16which he hopes will delay the inevitable Goth advance…
53:20…While in Rome, he and his men begin hurried preparations for a siege.
53:27The walls are repaired, and merlons are added.
53:31A deep moat is dug around the city.
53:37The granaries are filled with grain.
53:41All Rome’s adult male citizens are conscripted into the city guard.
53:48Vitigis, meanwhile, has been told how small Belisarius’s army is.
53:55Embarrassed by his earlier caution, he gives the order for his reinforced army to march
54:00on Rome.
54:02His chief concern is to get there before Belisarius can escape… but Belisarius has no plans
54:09to flee.
54:11“’And whoever of you has hopes of setting foot in Rome without a fight is mistaken in
54:18his judgment.
54:20For as long as Belisarius lives, it is impossible for him to relinquish this city.’
54:27Such were the words of Belisarius.”
54:30537 AD.
54:33In early spring, Vitigis leads a huge Goth army – probably more than 30,000 men - down
54:40the Via Flaminia, sweeping past the small Roman outposts.
54:47Belisarius plans to fight a delaying action a mile and a half north of the city, at the
54:51Salarian Bridge.
54:53But his infantry, terrified by the size of the Goth army, abandon the bridge without
54:59a fight.
55:02Belisarius is left facing the Goth army with just a thousand horsemen.
55:08He orders his men to charge.
55:12Belisarius himself fights in the front rank.
55:15Scores of men fall around him.
55:18Goth spears finally drive Belisarius and his men back towards the Porta Salaria.
55:26At first, its defenders don’t recognise Belisarius, covered in dust and gore, and
55:33won’t let him in.
55:34He’s forced to launch another desperate charge to drive the Goths back from the walls.
55:42Finally the gate is opened, and he and his men get back into the city.
55:47The siege of Rome begins.
55:51The city is too large for Vitigis to completely surround.
55:57He builds 7 fortified camps north of the city… and cuts the aqueducts that have supplied
56:03Rome with water for 800 years.
56:06There will be no baths for the Romans.
56:09But the city’s wells will still supply drinking water.
56:14When Belisarius rejects calls to surrender, the Goths begin building rams, ladders and
56:20siege towers for a major assault.
56:2318 days later, they attack.
56:27But their inexperience in siege warfare is soon evident.
56:33Their towers are pulled by oxen.
56:36The Romans shoot all the animals, and the towers are left stranded.
56:44The Goths assault the city from multiple directions.
56:47The Mausoleum of Hadrian, converted into a fortress, comes under heavy pressure.
56:54But eventually, the Goths are thrown back on all fronts.
57:01That night, the Romans celebrate a great victory, lighting fires and singing from the battlements.
57:12Both sides prepare for a long siege.
57:16Belisarius is an inspiring presence in the city: active, calm and confident, even when
57:22others begin to despair.
57:24He has written to Justinian, urgently requesting reinforcements.
57:28Now he oversees every aspect of the city’s defence and supply.
57:34He orders all non-combatants to travel south to Naples, so there are fewer mouths to feed.
57:41He has the keys to the gates changed regularly, to reduce the risk from treachery, while his
57:47Berber mercenaries patrol at night with dogs, to detect any surprise attack.
57:53His wife, Antonina, also takes an active role.
57:58When the pope is suspected of conducting secret talks with the Goths, she demands, “Tell
58:04us lord pope Silverius, what have we done to you and the Romans to make you want to
58:09betray us to the Goths?”
58:11The Pope is arrested and sent out of the city.
58:15A month into the siege, Belisarius receives much needed reinforcements: 1,600 cavalry,
58:24mostly Huns and Slavs led by Martinus and Valerian.
58:29Belisarius has seen that the Goths have no mounted archers.
58:34Now he can use his own to make hit and run attacks against the enemy.
58:38A few hundred horsemen will ride within range of the Goths… shower them with arrows…
58:45then fall back under covering fire from the city walls.
58:51Procopius counts 67 actions of this type, both large and small.
58:56Almost all are won by the Romans because of their superior cavalry.
59:01The victories raise morale, and frustrate the enemy.
59:06But they will not break the siege.
59:11The situation deteriorates dramatically when the Goths take Portus – Rome’s port at
59:17the mouth of the River Tiber, making it much more difficult to get supplies into the city.
59:24By September, six months into the siege, hunger and sickness begin to take hold.
59:32Even the army’s mules are killed to make sausages.
59:36The citizens of Rome beg Belisarius to stake everything on one decisive battle for the
59:44city.
59:46But he refuses, telling them:
59:48“You act as though you were playing dice and want to risk everything on a single roll.
59:54But it is not my custom to choose the short course over the best course.”
1:00:00Instead, Belisarius sends Antonina and Procopius to Naples, with instructions to use his authority
1:00:08to requisition all grain, and every soldier who can be spared, and send both to Rome.
1:00:15500 men and a convoy of supplies are soon rolling up the Via Appia.
1:00:21They’re followed by 1,800 cavalry reinforcements who land at Dryus – modern Otranto.
1:00:28Then 3,000 Isaurians arrive at Naples aboard grain ships, and travel on to Ostia by sea.
1:00:38After months of delay, the vast resources of the Eastern Roman Empire are finally coming
1:00:44to Belisarius’s aid.
1:00:47The garrison of Rome launch a series of diversionary attacks on the Goths.
1:00:52These allow the supplies, under Antonina’s direction, to slip into the city.
1:00:59The threat of starvation is ended.
1:01:03It’s the last straw for Vitigis.
1:01:08His own men have been camped outside Rome for almost a year, harassed by the enemy,
1:01:13themselves decimated by disease and hunger.
1:01:17The Ostrogoth king asks for a truce, to open negotiations with the Emperor.
1:01:23He offers Justinian all of southern Italy.
1:01:27But it is not enough.
1:01:29The initiative has swung to Belisarius.
1:01:34Belisarius has sent an elite force of 2,000 cavalry, commanded by John, north into Picenum,
1:01:40behind enemy lines.
1:01:43When the Goths break the terms of the truce, Belisarius orders John to unleash hell.
1:01:52Almost all the Goth warriors are away on military service.
1:01:56Their farms and settlements are completely exposed.
1:02:01John sacks, burns and plunders at will, enslaving hundreds of Goth women and children.
1:02:09Romans are not harmed.
1:02:12Vitigis’s uncle gathers a small force to challenge John.
1:02:17They’re no match for his bucellarii.
1:02:21The Goth force is massacred.
1:02:27John ignores the Goth strongholds at Urbino and Auximum… but at the invitation of its
1:02:34citizens, occupies the walled city of Ariminum, just 30 miles south of the Ostrogoth capital
1:02:40at Ravenna.
1:02:41Vitigis has no choice but to abandon the siege, and march north to defend the Goth heartland.
1:02:53Against the odds, under-resourced and outnumbered, Belisarius has triumphed in one of history’s
1:03:00most epic sieges – a siege that has lasted one year and nine days.
1:03:06Because of him, the city of Romulus and the Caesars once more belongs to the Roman Empire.
1:03:15The war against the Goths in Italy seems to be entering its final phase.
1:03:20Belisarius’s position appears unassailable.
1:03:27But as every emperor knows, the history of the empire has been blighted time and again
1:03:34by the treachery of overmighty generals.
1:03:37Belisarius’s victories are as glorious as any in Rome’s history.
1:03:42How can Justinian not regard him with suspicion?
1:03:58In 538, Italy’s largest and most prosperous city is not Rome or Ravenna, but Milan; to
1:04:06the Romans, Mediolanum.
1:04:09Its citizens wish to be reunited with the Empire, and at the Bishop of Milan’s request,
1:04:16Belisarius sends a small force to aid them.
1:04:20They defeat local Goth forces at Ticinum, and enter Milan in triumph.
1:04:26But in central Italy, Belisarius faces a dilemma.
1:04:31One of his best generals, John, nephew of Vitalian, has taken Ariminum with 2,000 elite
1:04:39cavalry.
1:04:40Now King Vitigis and the Ostrogoth army is marching from Rome, and will soon trap him
1:04:46in the city.
1:04:48Belisarius orders two trusted officers to get there first with infantry reinforcements.
1:04:54They are to swap places with John and his valuable cavalry, freeing them up for mobile
1:05:01operations.
1:05:02But when the reinforcements arrive at Ariminum, John refuses to obey Belisarius’s orders.
1:05:09Instead, he adds the infantry to his own force, and prepares to hold the city.
1:05:17Within days, John is cut off, and under siege.
1:05:22The Goths make their first assault with a giant siege tower.
1:05:28In heavy fighting, the Romans beat them back.
1:05:32But John does not have enough supplies to hold out for long.
1:05:37John’s insubordination puts Belisarius’s entire campaign in peril.
1:05:44He will lose some of his best troops if Ariminum falls.
1:05:48But a dash north risks leaving several, strong Goth garrisons in his rear, including 10,000
1:05:56experienced Goth warriors at Auximum.
1:06:00Belisarius’s advance meets with early success, as the Goths at Tudera and Clusium surrender
1:06:07without a fight.
1:06:09As he ponders his next move, news arrives that 7,000 Roman reinforcements have landed
1:06:15near Firmium.
1:06:17Belisarius marches to join them, and meet with their commander… one of the most powerful
1:06:22men in the empire – Narses the Eunuch.
1:06:27Narses - Praepositus Sacri Cubiculi – Grand Chamberlain of the Palace - is Justinian’s
1:06:34closest advisor.
1:06:37As a eunuch, he can pose no dynastic threat to the emperor, and so is entrusted with enormous
1:06:43power and influence.
1:06:46Narses had distinguished himself during the Nika Riots, bribing sections of the mob to
1:06:52switch sides… while Belisarius and Mundus had dealt more directly with the rest.
1:07:01Belisarius has military command in Italy, but he cannot simply issue orders to someone
1:07:06as important as Narses.
1:07:09So he convenes a council of war, seeking agreement on the way forward.
1:07:14Belisarius’s officers argue that John has only himself to blame for his fate.
1:07:20They should not risk the army to save him.
1:07:24But Narses is close to John, and thinks differently:
1:07:27“If John treated your orders with insolence, most excellent Belisarius, he has already
1:07:34been punished enough, since it is now in your power to either save or abandon him to the
1:07:39enemy.
1:07:40But you must ensure that neither we nor the Emperor are also punished for his mistakes.
1:07:47For if the Goths capture Ariminum, it will be their good fortune to capture a capable
1:07:51Roman general, as well as an army and city subject to the emperor.
1:07:57And the disaster will not stop there, but will affect the entire fortune of the war."
1:08:03As the council meets, a message arrives from John.
1:08:07His men are starving, and unless relieved, he must surrender in seven days.
1:08:13It is agreed that an attempt must be made to rescue John and his troops.
1:08:18In an elaborate operation, 1,000 troops are left to cover the Goth garrison at Auximum.
1:08:26One force will advance straight up the coastal road…
1:08:30Another force will move up by sea, threatening an amphibious landing…
1:08:35While Belisarius and Narses march inland, and approach from the west.
1:08:41The plan works perfectly.
1:08:44Vitigis receives reports of Roman forces closing in from all directions.
1:08:49Fearing encirclement, he abandons the siege, and hurriedly withdraws to his capital, Ravenna.
1:08:58But despite their success, all is not well in the Roman camp.
1:09:03When Belisarius invites John to thank those who’ve come to his rescue, John announces
1:09:08that his only debt is to Narses.
1:09:12His words fuel the growing distrust between Belisarius and Narses.
1:09:18In the words of Procopius, historian and eyewitness, “From that time on these two men began to
1:09:24regard each other with great suspicion.”
1:09:29The chain of command among Eastern Roman generals is not always clear, and is rarely set in
1:09:35stone.
1:09:37Referring decisions back to the Emperor takes months, so a general’s authority may often
1:09:42rest on his ability to win over his senior officers.
1:09:46It’s possible Justinian encourages such a system, to hinder overmighty generals who
1:09:52are tempted to challenge his rule.
1:09:55Is this why he has sent Narses to Italy, to clip the wings of Belisarius?
1:10:01We don’t know.
1:10:03But for the war in Italy, the consequences of this system will soon lead to catastrophe.
1:10:11John and other discontented officers begin to encourage Narses to oppose Belisarius.
1:10:17It is beneath his dignity, they tell him, to take orders from a mere general.
1:10:24When Belisarius reveals his plan to methodically eliminate the Goth strongholds in central
1:10:29Italy, prior to an advance on Ravenna, Narses objects.
1:10:34The strategy is too cautious.
1:10:37Instead, Narses proposes an immediate advance into Aemilia, to seize more territory from
1:10:43the Goths.
1:10:44In frustration, Belisarius produces a letter from the Emperor:
1:10:50“We have not sent our steward Narses to Italy in order to command the army.
1:10:55We wish Belisarius alone to command the whole army in whatever manner seems best to him.
1:11:01It is the duty of all to obey him in the interest of our Republic.”
1:11:05To which Narses replies, ‘your strategy is not in the interest of the Republic’.
1:11:14The army splits into two factions, each pursuing its own strategy: a potentially disastrous
1:11:20situation, but fortunately for the Romans, one which Vitigis in Ravenna fails to exploit.
1:11:28Belisarius is able to take Urbino when its well unexpectedly fails.
1:11:34Narses sends John to capture Forum Cornelii, in Aemilia.
1:11:40But in the north a storm is brewing.
1:11:45“This city of Milan far surpasses all the cities of Italy in size and population and
1:11:53every other sort of prosperity…
1:11:55this city, I say, has fallen into great danger… the urgency of the moment does not allow me
1:12:01to use many words…But you, I say, must defend the people of Milan in their peril with all
1:12:07possible speed.
1:12:09If you hesitate to come to us in the present crisis, the result will be that we will perish
1:12:15after suffering the most cruel fate possible…”
1:12:19539 AD.
1:12:23Milan is held by just 300 Roman troops and its citizen militia.
1:12:28The Goths have reacted swiftly to its loss, and the city is now besieged by Uraias, the
1:12:34king’s nephew.
1:12:35He is supported by a huge force of Burgundians sent by Theodebert, King of the Franks – a
1:12:42Goth ally, though how far he can be trusted is anyone’s guess.
1:12:48By winter, Milan is starving.
1:12:50Its people are eating mice and dogs.
1:12:54Belisarius, besieging Urvivento, orders a force to march to the city’s aid.
1:13:01But when its commanders learn of the size of the Burgundian force, they halt at the
1:13:06River Po, and refuse to go further without support from John and his troops in Aemilia.
1:13:12By now, John only obeys orders from Narses.
1:13:16By the time Belisarius has written to Narses and persuaded him of the urgency of the situation…
1:13:23it is too late.
1:13:27The garrison of Milan ignore their commander’s plea to die like heroes, and negotiate their
1:13:33own surrender… abandoning the civilians to their fate.
1:13:39Goths and Burgundians slaughter every male they can find in the city.
1:13:44Women and children are given to the Burgundians as slaves.
1:13:49One of the greatest cities in Italy is plundered and razed to the ground.
1:13:57The destruction of Milan is the direct consequence of a fatally divided Roman high command.
1:14:06Shocked into action, Justinian recalls Narses to Constantinople.
1:14:13Belisarius once more has sole, undisputed command in Italy.
1:14:19The northern part of the country has now been ravaged by two years of war, in which time
1:14:25no harvests are gathered.
1:14:28Vitigis cannot campaign without supplies, and remains in Ravenna.
1:14:34Roman forces can be supplied by sea, with grain from Sicily and the south.
1:14:40But in the countryside, Italian peasants begin to starve.
1:14:45“I will now tell of the appearance they acquired and how they died, for I was an eyewitness.
1:14:54All of them first became lean and pale, for the flesh, lacking nourishment, “turned
1:15:00on itself”, to use the old expression…
1:15:04As the evil developed, all moisture left them and the skin became so dry that it resembled
1:15:10leather more than anything else...
1:15:11They changed from a livid to a black colour, whereupon they came to resemble burned-up
1:15:19torches.
1:15:21Their faces always wore an expression of amazement, and a dreadful sort of insane stare.”
1:15:29Procopius estimates that famine claims 50,000 lives in Picenum alone, with bodies left unburied,
1:15:37and rumours of cannibalism.
1:15:40When King Theodebert himself suddenly leads a great Frankish army into northern Italy,
1:15:46attacking Goths and Romans alike, he finds he has entered a wasteland.
1:15:52His army, unable to find supplies and decimated by disease and dysentery, quickly withdraws
1:15:59back across the Alps.
1:16:02The war grinds on, as Belisarius besieges the Goth strongholds at Faesulae and Auximum.
1:16:11Auximum is impregnable.
1:16:15Only starvation will force the Goths to give up.
1:16:19Skirmishes are fought in the surrounding hills, as each side ambushes the enemy’s foraging
1:16:24parties.
1:16:26Belisarius is amazed by the Goths’ determination.
1:16:30Eventually, he learns from a prisoner that one of his own men has been passing messages
1:16:35from Vitigis to the garrison, promising help, urging them to hold out a little longer.
1:16:44Belisarius arrests the traitor, then sends him back to his unit, for them to punish as
1:16:49they see fit.
1:16:51They burn him alive, in full view of the enemy.
1:16:59The garrisons of Faesulae, then Auximum, are finally starved into surrender.
1:17:05Belisarius grants them both generous terms.
1:17:08Then, with his rear secure, he begins his advance on Ravenna.
1:17:14Reinforcements from Dalmatia approach from the north.
1:17:19Ravenna is protected by a lagoon, marshes, and shoals along the coast.
1:17:25Parts of its 9-metre-high, brick curtain wall can still be seen today, incorporated into
1:17:31later Venetian fortifications.
1:17:34It is strongly held.
1:17:37But the Roman noose is tightening.
1:17:39A vital grain shipment along the Po River is intercepted.
1:17:44A mysterious fire breaks out in the city’s granary.
1:17:49The Goth king puts much hope in his nephew Uraias, approaching with a relief force of
1:17:544,000 men.
1:17:56But when the troops learn that their own strongholds have gone over to the Romans, they leave for
1:18:01home.
1:18:04In despair, Vitigis agrees to open negotiations.
1:18:09Imperial envoys arrive from Constantinople.
1:18:12But the treaty they offer to Vitigis is so generous that Belisarius refuses to sign it,
1:18:19believing he’s on the cusp of complete victory.
1:18:23Without Belisarius’s endorsement, the Goths also regard the treaty with suspicion.
1:18:30Sidelining King Vitigis, Goth nobles send their own delegation to Belisarius, with a
1:18:36secret offer to make him Emperor of the West if he will guarantee their security.
1:18:44Belisarius swears only that no harm will come to the Goths if they surrender.
1:18:49An oath to rule over the Goths, he will swear later, before Vitigis himself.
1:18:56The Goth delegation is satisfied.
1:18:59What man would turn down the offer of a crown?
1:19:05The gates of the city are opened, and Belisarius marches into Ravenna at the head of his troops.
1:19:13He ensures grain arrives in the city quickly.
1:19:16Then he tells the Goth warriors – who outnumber the Romans - to disperse, back to their homes.
1:19:24There is no plundering of private property, and no violence.
1:19:29Belisarius has triumphed… but it will soon emerge, he is not playing straight with the
1:19:35Goths.
1:19:37“While I watched the entry of the Roman army into Ravenna at that time, it occurred
1:19:44to me that the outcome of events is determined not by the wisdom of men, nor any other virtue
1:19:50on their part, but that there is some supernatural power that is ever warping their intentions,
1:19:56and leading them in such a way that nothing will hinder that which is being brought to
1:20:01pass.
1:20:02For though the Goths were greatly superior to their enemy in number and power, and had
1:20:07neither lost a great battle nor been humbled by any other disaster, still they were made
1:20:13captives by the weaker army, and regarded the name of slavery as no insult.”
1:20:22The days pass.
1:20:23The Goths await an announcement from Belisarius that he will crown himself Emperor of the
1:20:29West, and rule over them.
1:20:32It never comes.
1:20:35Belisarius has no intention of betraying the Emperor.
1:20:38He’s allowed the Goths to think that he’ll accept their offer, only to end the war as
1:20:43swiftly as possible.
1:20:45The Goths begin to feel they’ve been tricked – betrayed, even...
1:20:51Suspicions which are confirmed when Belisarius is recalled to Constantinople.
1:20:56He leaves with the Goth treasury and his prisoners, including Vitigis.
1:21:03Belisarius’s rivals ensure that Justinian hears all about the Goths’ offer of an imperial
1:21:10throne.
1:21:11But for the moment, the Emperor faces a far greater concern.
1:21:17One of Vitigis’s last acts as king had been to send two secret agents to the court of
1:21:23King Khosrow, in far-off Persia… with a plea for aid against their shared enemy, the
1:21:30Eastern Roman Empire.
1:21:32Khosrow needs no encouragement.
1:21:36He’s been watching, as Justinian strips his eastern frontier of troops, for his wars
1:21:42in the west.
1:21:43Now Sassanian armies are on the march.
1:21:48His huge army marches along the banks of the Euphrates River.
1:21:56Sura falls before them.
1:22:00Hierapolis is ransomed for two thousand pounds of silver.
1:22:04Beroea burns.
1:22:05Then to the horror of all Romans, Khosrow takes Antioch – second city of the Empire,
1:22:16the Roman capital of the Near East.
1:22:19The city burns.
1:22:22Soldiers flee.
1:22:25Civilians are massacred.
1:22:27The historian Procopius writes:
1:22:30“I become dizzy as I write about such a great calamity and transmit it to future times
1:22:37to remember.
1:22:38I cannot understand why it should be God’s will to exalt the fortunes of a man or place,
1:22:45and then to obliterate them for no cause that is apparent to us.”
1:22:51After years of victories, Justinian’s empire is rocked by this devastating onslaught.
1:22:58The Emperor can send only his cousin Germanus and 300 soldiers, with a promise of a great
1:23:04army to follow.
1:23:06But there is no great army.
1:23:09Roman forces are tied down fighting Justinian’s wars in the west.
1:23:14Instead, he will despatch his greatest general, Belisarius, and pray for a miracle...
1:23:21Little knowing that the empire is about to be plunged into an even greater catastrophe,
1:23:28unlike anything the world has ever seen before.
1:23:38Trouble had been brewing on Justinian’s eastern frontier for years.
1:23:43The Eastern Roman and Sassanid empires – the two great powers of the Middle East - had
1:23:48signed a Treaty of Eternal Peace just eight years before.
1:23:52But Khosrow had looked on with growing alarm, as Roman forces, led by Belisarius, had re-conquered
1:24:01first North Africa… and then Italy.
1:24:04Half in jest, Khosrow asks Justinian for his share of the tribute – since these victories
1:24:14are only possible because he’s granted the Romans peace.
1:24:19But the joke is wearing thin.
1:24:22Khosrow receives envoys from the Goths in Italy, and the Armenians, who beg him for
1:24:27aid.
1:24:28Justinian, they tell him, “has conceived the desire of seizing the entire earth…
1:24:34he will march against the Persians with those he has already enslaved, respecting neither
1:24:40the name of friendship nor any of his sworn promises.”
1:24:45In 540, Khosrow accuses the Eastern Emperor of paying Huns to raid Persian land… and
1:24:53trying to bribe his Arab allies to switch sides.
1:24:57Then he attacks.
1:25:02Justinian has stripped the frontier of its best troops, to reinforce his army in Italy.
1:25:08There is no Roman force that can stand up to Khosrow’s invasion.
1:25:13Antioch is sacked.
1:25:18Survivors are enslaved and sent to Persia.
1:25:21Khosrow then marches to the coast, and symbolically bathes in the waters of the Mediterranean.
1:25:30He moves on to Apamea, where he demands a thousand pounds of silver, but lets the priests
1:25:38keep their piece of the True Cross.
1:25:41He then fixes the local chariot race so that Justinian’s favourite team – the Blues
1:25:46– lose.
1:25:49Justinian agrees to pay Khosrow 5,000 pounds of gold, with 500 more to be paid annually,
1:25:56in exchange for a truce.
1:25:59Satisfied, Khosrow sets off for home.
1:26:02However, he does not let the truce prevent him from extorting several more payments en
1:26:08route.
1:26:09It is the Eastern Roman Empire’s greatest military humiliation in three centuries.
1:26:17“Everyone was talking about Belisarius.
1:26:21He was credited with two victories such as had never before fallen to the lot of one
1:26:26man: he had brought two kings captive to Constantinople, and beyond all expectation, had made Roman
1:26:33spoils of the nations and wealth of Geiseric and Theoderic.”
1:26:39In the Eastern Roman capital, Belisarius has been welcomed back from Italy as a hero.
1:26:46He and his entourage draw admiring crowds wherever they go.
1:26:51But he does not have long to enjoy his success.
1:26:56In early 541, Justinian sends Belisarius east, to take command of Roman forces in Syria,
1:27:03and ensure there is no repeat of the previous year’s disaster.
1:27:07Belisarius’s wife Antonina has accompanied him on previous campaigns to North Africa
1:27:13and Italy, and proved herself a valuable advisor and deputy.
1:27:17But this time she remains in Constantinople, to advise her friend and patron, Empress Theodora.
1:27:26Belisarius gathers all available forces at Dara, site of his great victory 11 years before.
1:27:33He has his own household troops, the elite bucellarii…
1:27:37Ostrogoths who have joined him in Italy…
1:27:41Rome’s Ghassanid Arab allies, led by Al-Harith…
1:27:46and several thousand limitanei, the Empire’s frontier troops.
1:27:51Procopius does not tell us the size of these forces – so we can only make educated guesses,
1:27:57based on circumstantial evidence.
1:28:00Local Roman forces are shaken by the events of the previous year.
1:28:05Belisarius spends several weeks reorganising these men, re-equipping them, and rebuilding
1:28:10their shattered morale.
1:28:13When Belisarius learns that Khosrow and the main Persian army are far away in the north,
1:28:19campaigning in Lazica… he decides to go on the offensive, and targets the Persian
1:28:24city of Nisibis.
1:28:28This fortified, frontier city is too strong to assault directly.
1:28:33But Belisarius hopes the garrison can be lured out and defeated in battle, allowing his troops
1:28:39to rush into the city, mingled with the retreating enemy.
1:28:47Belisarius camps 5 miles from Nisibis: close enough to tempt the Persians to attack…
1:28:53but far enough that they can’t easily retreat back to the city.
1:28:58But one Roman commander, Peter, camps far too close.
1:29:03Worse, he ignores Belisarius’s warning to be on high alert at noon, when the Persians
1:29:08are most likely to strike.
1:29:11The Persian commander Nabedes spots this isolated Roman force, and attacks.
1:29:18Peter immediately sends a rider to Belisarius calling for aid.
1:29:25But Belisarius and the rest of the army have already seen what’s happening, and are on
1:29:29their way.
1:29:31Before they can reach Peter, his force is hit by the Persian cavalry.
1:29:40After a brief fight, his troops scatter. 50 men are killed.
1:29:47A Roman standard is lost.
1:29:51When Belisarius arrives with reinforcements, he drives off the Persians, who retreat into
1:29:56the city leaving behind more than a hundred dead.
1:30:01But the loss of a Roman standard, in such a pointless skirmish, is a bitter blow.
1:30:13Belisarius marches on to the Persian fort at Sisauranon.
1:30:18His first attack is repelled.
1:30:20He digs in for a siege, while ordering Al-Harith’s Arabs and 1,200 bucellarii to cross the Tigris
1:30:28River, and raid deep into Assyria.
1:30:32It has been many years since the Romans have raided this far into Persian territory.
1:30:40There is little resistance, and much plunder.
1:30:48Sisauranon runs out of food, and surrenders to Belisarius.
1:30:54But the Roman general has run out of time.
1:30:58His troops are exhausted by the extreme summer heat, and a third are sick.
1:31:03His limitanei wish to return to their homes - now threatened by the start of the Arab
1:31:08raiding season.
1:31:10While Al-Harith and his men have gone AWOL.
1:31:14It later emerges they’ve ridden straight home, to avoid sharing their loot with the
1:31:19Romans.
1:31:20Belisarius, having achieved as much as he can with his limited force, withdraws back
1:31:26into Roman territory.
1:31:28“At the opening of spring, Khosrow, son of Kavadh, for the third time began an invasion
1:31:36into the land of the Romans with a large army, keeping the Euphrates river on the right...
1:31:42The Emperor Justinian, upon learning of the inroad of the Persians, sent Belisarius against
1:31:48them once more.”
1:31:51542 AD.
1:31:54Belisarius spends the winter in Constantinople.
1:31:57But in early spring, news arrives that Khosrow is preparing to invade again.
1:32:03Belisarius races back to the eastern front, using horses of the famous cursus publicus,
1:32:09the Roman postal service, with fresh remounts at every stage.
1:32:14A journey that normally takes a month, can be completed in around 8 days.
1:32:20Local commanders warn that Khosrow is approaching with the biggest army yet.
1:32:25They want to hole up in Hierapolis, and hide behind its strong walls.
1:32:32Belisarius has a different plan.
1:32:34“If Khosrow were attacking any other people but Romans, this plan of yours would be safe
1:32:41and sensible.
1:32:43But as immediately after leaving here, this barbarian plans to fall upon some other territory
1:32:49of the Emperor, be assured that to die bravely would be better in every way than to be saved
1:32:56without a fight.
1:32:57For this would justly be called not salvation but treason.
1:33:04So come as quickly as possible to Europos, where, after collecting the whole army, I
1:33:09hope to deal with the enemy as God permits.”
1:33:17Khosrow is counting on another lucrative plundering expedition.
1:33:21This time he plans to raid Palestine, and pillage Jerusalem.
1:33:26But when he hears Belisarius himself has arrived, and is gathering a Roman army at Europos,
1:33:33he hesitates.
1:33:34He sends an envoy, Abandanes, to meet Belisarius on the pretext of re-opening negotiations,
1:33:41but really to gauge his strength.
1:33:46For almost the first time in 10 years, Procopius is not at Belisarius’s side.
1:33:52He has remained in Constantinople.
1:33:55In fact, his days of campaigning with the great Roman general are over.
1:34:00Nonetheless, he provides a detailed description of what follows.
1:34:06Belisarius meets Khosrow’s envoy far from the Roman camp, surrounded by an imposing
1:34:12number of his most fearsome warriors, including Thracians, Illyrians, Goths and Vandals.
1:34:19They have been hand-picked to make an impression.
1:34:23All are tall, strongly-built men, armed to the teeth, and seem completely unconcerned
1:34:29by the arrival of a Persian envoy.
1:34:33Belisarius himself speaks in a carefree manner:
1:34:36“This course that Khosrow has chosen is not how men usually behave.
1:34:41If other men have a dispute with their neighbour, they first try to negotiate with him, and
1:34:47only go to war if they do not receive satisfaction.
1:34:52But he first comes into the midst of the Romans, and then makes suggestions about peace.”
1:34:59With that, Belisarius dismisses the envoy.
1:35:04The envoy returns to Khosrow, and urges the king to avoid battle at all costs.
1:35:10The enemy are not like any men he’s seen before: they are formidable and disciplined.
1:35:15Their commander is wise and imposing.
1:35:17The king should withdraw as soon as possible.
1:35:23Khosrow takes his advice.
1:35:26The Persian army crosses the Euphrates, and marches home.
1:35:32Belisarius appears to have bluffed a stronger enemy into retreat, and saved huge swathes
1:35:38of the empire from plunder and pillage.
1:35:41According to Procopius, “The Romans praised Belisarius.
1:35:46He seemed to have achieved greater glory in their eyes by this feat than when he brought
1:35:51Gelimer or Witigis captive to Constantinople.
1:35:55In truth, it was an achievement of great importance and deserving great praise, at a time when
1:36:01all the Romans were hiding in terror behind their defences.”
1:36:08Belisarius and his bucellarii, putting on a show that is so intimidating and deceptive,
1:36:13that the Persian king abandons his campaign…
1:36:16It’s a famous and memorable scene.
1:36:20But did it ever happen?
1:36:22Many historians believe that something even more terrifying caused Khosrow’s rapid withdrawal…
1:36:29he’d discovered the Empire was riddled with plague.
1:36:35“During these times there was a pestilence, which came close to wiping out the whole of
1:36:41mankind.
1:36:43Now in the case of all other scourges sent from Heaven some explanation or cause might
1:36:48be given by daring men…
1:36:51But for this calamity it is quite impossible either to express in words or to conceive
1:36:57in thought any explanation, except indeed to refer it to God.”
1:37:04The 6th century world is full of strange and mysterious phenomena.
1:37:09Sometimes even a highly-educated man like Procopius can only record his observations,
1:37:15and trust in God.
1:37:17Of the year 536, he wrote, “It came about during this year that a most dread portent
1:37:24took place.
1:37:25The whole year, the sun gave forth its light without brightness, like the moon, and it
1:37:30seemed much like an eclipse, for its beams were not clear nor like those it usually makes.
1:37:37From the time when this thing happened men were free neither from war nor pestilence
1:37:43nor any other thing that brings death.”
1:37:49Experts now believe Procopius was observing the atmospheric aftermath of a massive volcanic
1:37:55eruption.
1:37:57In fact, a cluster of volcanic activity around this date would help to trigger what’s become
1:38:02known as the ‘Late Antique Little Ice Age’.
1:38:07Its impact is impossible to measure, but it may have contributed to food shortages, and
1:38:13worsened the famine that Procopius witnessed in Italy.
1:38:16Such shortages made the population weaker, and more vulnerable to what came next.
1:38:24“It originated among the Egyptians who live in Pelusium.
1:38:29From there it branched out in two directions, the first moving to Alexandria and then the
1:38:35rest of Egypt, the second coming to the Palestinians who live by the border of Egypt.”
1:38:41Plague is first recorded in the Nile Delta in 541.
1:38:49It spreads across Egypt, and into coastal Palestine.
1:38:53In spring 542, it reaches the imperial capital, Constantinople.
1:38:59It spreads rapidly across the Empire.
1:39:02In 543, plague reaches Persian-ruled Armenia, and the Kingdom of the Franks.
1:39:08Recently, plague victims have even been identified in Anglo-Saxon England.
1:39:15Procopius is in Constantinople when the plague strikes with full, terrifying force.
1:39:22“They fell ill in the following way.
1:39:26Suddenly they became feverish, some of them when they rose from sleep, others while they
1:39:31walked about, or doing any small thing.
1:39:34The body did not change colour or become warm like a regular fever, nor did it burn up;
1:39:40rather, at first the fever was so mild that it gave no cause for alarm, either to victims
1:39:46or the doctors who treated them.
1:39:49But then on the same day, or the next, a bubonic swelling appeared.
1:39:54This happened around the groin, also inside the armpit, sometimes by the ears, or the
1:40:00thigh.”
1:40:02Some victims, Procopius writes, fall into a coma-like state, unable to feed or care
1:40:08for themselves.
1:40:10Others are seized by madness, shouting wildly and running into the streets.
1:40:15“Some died immediately, others after many days.
1:40:20In some cases, the body blossomed with dark pustules about the size of a lentil.
1:40:26These people did not survive a single day.
1:40:28They all died immediately.
1:40:31Many others suddenly began to vomit blood and perished immediately.
1:40:36I must also state, that the most eminent doctors predicted that many would die who shortly
1:40:44afterwards were unexpectedly free of all sickness.
1:40:48They also claimed that many would survive who were destined to perish almost immediately.
1:40:54Thus there was no cause behind this disease that any human reason could grasp, for in
1:41:00all cases the outcome made little sense.”
1:41:04DNA analysis of human remains from this, and later pandemics, has identified the cause
1:41:11of this terrifying disease – a deadly bacterium called Yersinia pestis.
1:41:17Procopius is at the centre of the world’s first bubonic plague pandemic…
1:41:22The second, eight centuries later, is known as the Black Death.
1:41:31The peak of the pandemic lasts 3 months.
1:41:34On the very worst days, the death toll in Constantinople alone may be as high as 10,000.
1:41:41Between a third and half the city’s population perish.
1:41:46Entire households are wiped out.
1:41:48The city’s graveyards overflow, and corpses are crammed into city watchtowers.
1:41:53“It was not easy in those times to see anyone out and about, for all were holed up in their
1:42:00homes…
1:42:02If you happened to chance upon someone going out, he was carrying one of the dead.
1:42:07All work came to a standstill…”
1:42:10The plague hits the Empire’s great cities hardest, but the pestilence also reaches deep
1:42:17into the countryside.
1:42:21Then Emperor Justinian himself falls sick.
1:42:28News soon reaches the army in Syria.
1:42:31There are even rumours that the Emperor is already dead.
1:42:36Belisarius and his generals discuss the situation, but we have no reliable information on what
1:42:42is said, or by whom.
1:42:45Justinian has no children.
1:42:47The succession will be an uncertain and dangerous time; their own role may be decisive.
1:42:54They may even discuss who among them is best-placed to succeed the Emperor.
1:43:01Unexpectedly, Justinian makes a full recovery.
1:43:06But Empress Theodora has learned of the generals’ meeting in Syria: her informers tell her that
1:43:13Belisarius and another general, Bouzes, had said they would not support any new emperor
1:43:18proclaimed in Constantinople.
1:43:22Theodora regards these words as treason – a clear sign they will turn against her if her
1:43:28husband should die.
1:43:32Belisarius and Bouzes are summoned to Constantinople for questioning.
1:43:37Theodora cannot prove their treason, but both men experience a sudden, dramatic fall from
1:43:44favour.
1:43:45Procopius claims that Bouzes spends more than two years in a secret prison.
1:43:51Belisarius, the Emperor’s most successful general, escapes imprisonment, but his disgrace
1:43:57is total.
1:43:59He is dismissed from command, and loses much of his fortune.
1:44:03His famed bucellarii are split up and distributed amongst other commanders.
1:44:11Belisarius lives in Constantinople as a private citizen for more than a year…
1:44:16While abroad, Justinian’s empire slides towards crisis.
1:44:21The plague has killed a multitude of Roman citizens and soldiers, and severely disrupted
1:44:27government, trade and taxation.
1:44:30In Armenia, a Roman offensive ends in humiliating defeat.
1:44:36In North Africa, Berber rebels defeat the Romans and kill Solomon, the governor.
1:44:43While in Italy, the Ostrogoths have rallied under a new king, Totila..
1:44:48retaken most of Belisarius’s gains, and again threaten Rome itself.
1:44:55Justinian is desperate for a general who can take command in Italy, and turn the tide of
1:45:01war.
1:45:03544 AD.
1:45:07Belisarius is recalled from disgrace, and given back his old command in Italy.
1:45:14But the emperor has no troops to spare.
1:45:17And Belisarius’s bucellarii are still in the east.
1:45:20This time, he will have only 4,000 recruits, that he must hire and equip himself, to reinforce
1:45:27the demoralised army in Italy.
1:45:31And in Totila, he faces a far more dangerous adversary than before.
1:45:36He is poorly resourced, and has been ungratefully treated by his Emperor.
1:45:43But Belisarius loyally marches to war again, in what will prove his final campaign.
1:45:57Eastern Roman general Flavius Belisarius and 4,000 troops have arrived at Salona, poised
1:46:04to cross the Adriatic to Italy.
1:46:08Four years have passed since Belisarius’s great victory over the Ostrogoths.
1:46:14But in his absence, the Eastern Roman position in Italy has collapsed.
1:46:20After several coups and assassinations, the Goths have chosen a new king to lead them.
1:46:26A brilliant warrior, who is also wise and active.
1:46:31His name is Totila.
1:46:35While Emperor Justinian had been distracted by the war in the east, and ravages of plague,
1:46:41Totila had attacked.
1:46:44He swept to victory against a demoralised Roman army, that had been left without pay
1:46:51or supplies, and led by corrupt, squabbling generals.
1:46:55Many Romans chose to switch sides rather than fight.
1:47:01Much of what Belisarius had achieved in four years of campaigning is undone.
1:47:07Only Rome, and a few other cities and ports, are still in Roman hands.
1:47:13Belisarius, veteran of great Roman victories against Persians, Vandals and Ostrogoths,
1:47:21will face his toughest campaign yet...
1:47:24A struggle once more for Italy - against the odds, and against a formidable enemy.
1:47:43Belisarius seems to face an impossible task.
1:47:46With just 4,000 inexperienced troops, he cannot risk facing the Goth king Totila in battle.
1:47:53For the time being, he must remain on the defensive.
1:47:59He has an early success when he is able to relieve and resupply the garrison of Dryus,
1:48:04which had been on the point of surrender.
1:48:08Then he moves his force up by sea to Ravenna.
1:48:13But Belisarius finds that every move he makes in Italy – to reinforce a garrison, or extend
1:48:20Roman control - is hamstrung, by a lack of troops, supplies and money.
1:48:26He sends his old rival, John, nephew of Vitalian, back to Constantinople with an urgent appeal
1:48:34to the Emperor:
1:48:36“We have arrived in Italy, most mighty emperor, without men, horses, arms, or money, and no
1:48:45man, I think, can carry on a war without a plentiful supply of these things.”
1:48:53Belisarius ask, above all, that his household troops, his famed bucellarii, be released
1:48:59from service in the east and sent to join him in Italy.
1:49:05Belisarius withdraws to Dyrrachium, to await the Emperor’s reply.
1:49:11Totila, meanwhile, tightens his grip on central Italy.. and in late 545, he advances on Rome.
1:49:22The Eternal City is held by just 3,000 Roman troops, commanded by Bessas.
1:49:27For months, the Goths have been intercepting supplies sent to the city.
1:49:33Civilians are already starving, the garrison will be next.
1:49:37The city cannot hold out for long.
1:49:42A few months later, John rejoins Belisarius at Dyrrachium with some reinforcements.
1:49:50But not for the first time, the two generals disagree about their next move.
1:49:57John wants to cross to southern Italy, and march overland to Rome – a journey that
1:50:03could take 40 days.
1:50:06Belisarius thinks they’ll be too late to save the city.
1:50:09He wants to get troops and supplies there as fast as possible, which means sailing directly
1:50:15to Portus – a five-day voyage in favourable winds.
1:50:19John can land in southern Italy, clear the region of Goths, and meet Belisarius near
1:50:25Rome.
1:50:27Belisarius’s plan risks dividing his small force.
1:50:31But it may – at a stroke – secure Rome and southern Italy for the Emperor.
1:50:37However, his last campaign is to be plagued by misfortune.
1:50:43“When Belisarius arrived in Italy, things went wrong with him daily, for he had clearly
1:50:52incurred the enmity of heaven.”
1:50:58Belisarius sails for Portus, accompanied by his troops and his wife Antonina.
1:51:04But they are hit by a storm, and have to put in at Dryus.
1:51:09They are spotted by Goths besieging the port, who send word to Totila.
1:51:17By the time Belisarius reaches Portus a few days later, the Goths are on high alert, ready
1:51:23for any attempt to relieve Rome.
1:51:27Totila knows Belisarius will try to move supplies from Portus to Rome along the Tiber River.
1:51:36So 10 miles downriver from the city, he builds a fortified wooden bridge with towers on each
1:51:43bank, filled with Goth warriors.
1:51:46It’s a formidable obstacle, that Belisarius will have to break through to save Rome.
1:51:53Meanwhile, John lands with his troops in the south.
1:51:58He quickly routs local Goth forces, and secures the region.
1:52:04But despite appeals from Belisarius, John refuses to march to their rendezvous at Rome.
1:52:10He cites the presence of 300 Goths at Capua, who shadow his movements, and convince him
1:52:17that he’d be marching into a trap.
1:52:22Belisarius can wait no longer.
1:52:24He leaves Isaac in command at Portus, with strict orders not to leave their only secure
1:52:30base for any reason.
1:52:33He also sends word to Bessas in Rome, ordering him to make a diversionary attack on the Goth
1:52:40camp.
1:52:41Then his convoy of 200 reinforced galleys begins to row up the Tiber, packed with troops
1:52:48and supplies.
1:52:49An infantry force supports them on the right bank.
1:52:56After clearing an iron chain that lay across the river, they reach Totila’s fortified
1:53:01bridge.
1:53:02Thanks to skilled reconnaissance, Belisarius not only knows its location, but its exact
1:53:10dimensions.
1:53:11He has built a taller tower, which floats on two barges.
1:53:15The Romans push it up to a Goth tower… and drop a burning boat, packed with pitch and
1:53:22tar, on top of it.
1:53:24The tower, with scores of Goth warriors still inside, is incinerated.
1:53:42Goths now race from their camp to join the battle, and throw back Belisarius’s river
1:53:47assault.
1:53:51Heavy fighting breaks out around the wreckage of the bridge.
1:53:55But there is no sign of the diversionary raid by the garrison of Rome.
1:54:00Bessas, it will emerge, has decided not to risk his own men.
1:54:07Belisarius’s troops gain the upper hand, and start to dismantle the bridge.
1:54:14But then a messenger arrives with news that the Goths have captured Isaac, left in command
1:54:20at Portus.
1:54:22Belisarius, for once, seems to lose his usual cool head.
1:54:27He assumes Portus has been captured, along with his wife, and the army’s only refuge.
1:54:35Without waiting for more information, he turns his entire force around, to launch an immediate
1:54:40attack to retake Portus.
1:54:44But when Belisarius gets there, he discovers that Portus is quite safe.
1:54:50Despite his orders to stay put, Isaac had been captured leading a reckless attack on
1:54:55the Goths, in pursuit of glory.
1:54:58Now crucial moments have been lost.
1:55:02The Goths are reinforcing their position.
1:55:05To renew the attack would be futile.
1:55:08Belisarius’s attempt to save Rome has failed.
1:55:13He is overcome with despair.
1:55:17Then he falls sick with fever, and comes close to death.
1:55:22Ten years after Rome fell to Belisarius, the city falls to Totila, its gates opened by
1:55:30starving Roman troops.
1:55:33Procopius records that just 26 soldiers and 60 civilians are slain, before Totila orders
1:55:40his men to stop the killing.
1:55:45Within Rome, the Goths find just a few hundred civilians,
1:55:50hungry and destitute, sheltering amid the monuments and temples of what had been the
1:55:55world’s greatest city.
1:55:57Rome.. is a ghost town.
1:56:01Totila decides to raze it to the ground, and begins demolishing the city walls.
1:56:08When Belisarius hears of this, he writes to the Goth king.
1:56:13“Among all cities under the sun Rome is agreed to be the greatest and most noteworthy…
1:56:22any insult to these monuments would rightly be considered a great crime against the whole
1:56:26of humanity.
1:56:29For by such an action the men of former generations are robbed of the memorials of their virtue,
1:56:36and future generations of the sight of their works.”
1:56:41Belisarius adds that if the Romans win this war, they’ll show no mercy to the man who
1:56:46levelled Rome.
1:56:50Totila changes his mind.
1:56:53Having destroyed Rome’s gates and much of its walls, he marches south, taking the last
1:56:59of its inhabitants with him.
1:57:02John retreats behind the walls of Dryus, and southern Italy is soon back under Goth control.
1:57:10Rome, the Eternal City, is abandoned.
1:57:15We are told it is forsaken by all living things – but doubtless there are those desperate
1:57:21enough to roam the empty forums and deserted streets.
1:57:29In the spring of 547 Belisarius, recovered from his illness, makes a personal reconnaissance
1:57:35of Rome to inspect its defences.
1:57:40Word of his movements reaches the Goths, and Belisarius and his escort have to fight their
1:57:45way out of a dangerous ambush.
1:57:49But the Roman general has seen enough.
1:57:52He has decided to reoccupy Rome
1:57:58There is no Goth garrison to oppose Belisarius.
1:58:01But strategically it seems madness – how can he expect to hold the empty city?
1:58:07For 25 days, he and his men work furiously to lay in supplies, and shore up the city’s
1:58:15defences before the Goths return.
1:58:19Their presence encourages some Romans to begin moving back into the city.
1:58:28By the time Totila and his army arrive, the Romans have rebuilt much of the walls with
1:58:33loose stone.
1:58:35But they haven’t had time to make new gates.
1:58:39The Goths attack, confident of victory.
1:58:45The Romans have a nasty surprise for them – caltrops, spread over the approach routes
1:58:51to maim Goth men and horses.
1:58:54For two whole days, there is savage fighting at the open gateways.
1:59:00But Belisarius’s men stubbornly hold their positions.
1:59:09A few days later, the Goths prepare to launch another attack.
1:59:15This time the Romans are so confident they come out of the city, and fight the enemy
1:59:20in the open.
1:59:22Totila’s own standard-bearer is cut down.
1:59:25The Goths are routed.
1:59:28Totila, harangued by his own men for neither destroying Rome when he had the chance, nor
1:59:34garrisoning it, withdraws to Tivoli.
1:59:38At last, Roman fortunes seem to be on the rise.
1:59:43There’s more good news, when Emperor Justinian decides to send Belisarius more reinforcements
1:59:49– around 2,500 men.
1:59:53Belisarius is ordered to link up with them at Tarentum, before re-establishing control
1:59:58of southern Italy.
2:00:01He sails from Portus with 900 picked men.
2:00:07But once more, ill winds force him off course, and he has to land at Crotone – a hostile
2:00:14shore.
2:00:17Despite their experience, his cavalry fail to set sentries while out foraging for supplies…
2:00:23and a large force of Goth cavalry takes them by surprise.
2:00:29The Romans are outnumbered four to one.
2:00:32Many of Belisarius’s best men fall in the fighting.
2:00:38The rest of his force hurriedly re-embarks, and sails for Sicily.
2:00:43It’s a humiliating withdrawal for Belisarius, a general who’s conquered nearly all before
2:00:50him - now chased out of Italy by a small band of barbarians.
2:00:56Belisarius’s wife Antonina has been by his side throughout the campaign.
2:01:02Now she returns to Constantinople.
2:01:05As a close friend and confidante of Empress Theodora, she hopes that in person, she can
2:01:11persuade her to send Belisarius the troops and supplies he so desperately needs.
2:01:17The mission will prove futile.
2:01:22When Antonina arrives in the capital, she learns that Empress Theodora has fallen sick…
2:01:28and died.
2:01:31“At this point in the war, the barbarians became unquestionably masters of the whole
2:01:38West.
2:01:39Though the Romans had been at first decisively victorious in the Gothic War, as I have previously
2:01:45recounted, the result for them was that they had not only spent money and lives in huge
2:01:50amounts and to no advantage, but they had also lost Italy…”
2:01:57Belisarius’s second Italian campaign ends in frustration, and failure.
2:02:05In January 549, he is recalled to Constantinople, allegedly at the request of his wife Antonina.
2:02:14Soon after he leaves, the Goths finally take Perugia.
2:02:19The next year, they take Rome.
2:02:22Goth fleets begin to raid Sicily and Dalmatia.
2:02:28But Justinian continues to ignore Totila’s offers of a generous peace.
2:02:33Because he has, at last, assembled an army big enough to take the war to the Goths.
2:02:41He awards command not to Belisarius… but to his old rival, Narses the Eunuch, chamberlain
2:02:51of the palace.
2:02:54Narses leads the army into Italy in 552.
2:03:00He decides to act fast, and force a decisive battle against Totila at the first opportunity.
2:03:06He gets his wish at Busta Gallorum.
2:03:11Totila risks everything on a massed cavalry charge against the Roman centre.
2:03:18He is met with a storm of arrows.
2:03:24It is a debacle.
2:03:26Totila himself is among scores of Goth lords who perish.
2:03:31Goth military power in Italy is broken.
2:03:38Within two years, Narses will win more brilliant victories against the Goths and Franks, and
2:03:45bring the war in Italy to a victorious end.
2:03:50Belisarius’s feelings, at news of Narses’ triumphs, can only be guessed at.
2:03:58Joy and gratitude for a Roman victory.
2:04:02But bitterness, perhaps, that he’d had to fight the war for so long, with so little
2:04:07support.
2:04:09After 25 years commanding Roman troops, Belisarius’s military career seems at an end.
2:04:17He lives as a rich and famous patrician in Constantinople, and serves as trusted advisor
2:04:23to Justinian.
2:04:25Little more is heard of the great general for several years… until 559.
2:04:32“And now, after a great lapse of time, as he once more put on his breastplate and helmet
2:04:41and donned the familiar uniform of his younger days, the memory of past exploits came flooding
2:04:47into the old man's mind and filled him with youthful ardour.”
2:04:51Kutrigurs – Turkic warrior nomads, perhaps descended from the Huns of Attila – have
2:05:00menaced the Eastern Roman Empire for decades.
2:05:05Justinian uses a combination of bribes, fortifications and shrewd diplomacy to keep them at bay.
2:05:12The system does not always work.
2:05:17In 559, their chief Zabergan leads the Kutrigurs south across the frozen Danube.
2:05:25They split into three groups.
2:05:29Zabergan himself leads 7,000 men towards Constantinople.
2:05:35They bypass the outer fortifications, the Long Walls, which are crumbling and undefended.
2:05:44There are hardly any troops in Constantinople, and as the Kutrigurs draw near, panic spreads.
2:05:55Justinian knows there is one man in the city he can rely on.
2:06:00He summons Belisarius, and orders him to take charge of the city’s defence.
2:06:07The great general, now almost sixty, gathers 300 veterans and a crowd of citizen volunteers,
2:06:15and marches out to face the enemy.
2:06:20He sets an ambush for the advance party of 2,000 Kutrigurs.
2:06:24When they’ve entered the trap, his veterans attack from both flanks, hurling javelins.
2:06:33Then Belisarius leads forward his main force in a head-on charge.
2:06:39His men scream and roar to terrify the enemy.
2:06:43Horses drag branches to stir up dust and hide their numbers.
2:06:47The Kutrigurs are hemmed in, attacked from all sides, unsure of the enemy’s strength.
2:06:54They panic and flee.
2:06:57In the words of the historian Agathias:
2:06:59“The Romans followed them in an orderly and disciplined pursuit, making short work
2:07:05of all they could lay their hands on.
2:07:09The barbarians were slaughtered in great numbers as they galloped away, without even turning
2:07:15round to look back.”
2:07:21Belisarius has won yet another famous victory.
2:07:24Yet three years later, after a failed assassination plot against the Emperor, he finds himself
2:07:31in disgrace once more.
2:07:34Under interrogation, the conspirators name members of his household, who in turn implicate
2:07:40Belisarius himself.
2:07:42It’s flimsy evidence.
2:07:45But Belisarius is persona non grata for seven months, before Justinian restores his honours.
2:07:54This incident spawns a medieval legend – that as punishment, Justinian had had Belisarius
2:08:00blinded, and he became a beggar at the gates of Constantinople.
2:08:04The story was a favourite of 18th century neo-classicists, with its dramatic themes
2:08:10of tyranny, injustice and charity.
2:08:14But there is no contemporary evidence to support it.
2:08:20Three years later, a single line in the chronicle of Theophanes records the death of one of
2:08:26Rome’s greatest generals.
2:08:28“In March of this year, in the 13th indiction, Belisarius the patrician died in Constantinople,
2:08:37and his property accrued to the imperial house of Marina.”
2:08:41Nothing more is said.
2:08:43The year is 565.
2:08:46Belisarius would have been in his mid-sixties.
2:08:50The fate of his wife Antonina is not known.
2:08:56As for Procopius…
2:08:58His great work, History of the Wars of Justinian, is published in the 550s, within the lifetime
2:09:05of Justinian and Belisarius.
2:09:09It is an astonishing achievement, from an author who witnessed many of its major events,
2:09:15and knew many of the great figures involved.
2:09:18It comes to be regarded as one of the greatest, and longest, histories to reach us from the
2:09:24ancient world.
2:09:27But Procopius also writes another account of these times, unpublished in his lifetime,
2:09:33known as the Secret History.
2:09:37In its introduction, he writes:
2:09:39“I have been forced to conceal the real causes of many of the events recounted in
2:09:44my former books.
2:09:46It will now be my duty, in this part of my history, to tell what has hitherto remained
2:09:52untold…”
2:09:56What follows is a scandalous assault on the reputations of Theodora and Justinian, Antonina
2:10:03and Belisarius.
2:10:05Procopius describes the imperial couple as vicious, scheming, and above all greedy for
2:10:12money.
2:10:15He asserts that Theodora had been a notorious prostitute in her youth... and that Justinian
2:10:21is possessed by demons.
2:10:24Antonina, he claims, is a serial adulterer, who holds the pathetically devoted Belisarius
2:10:32under her spell.
2:10:34Many of their actions, even major strategic decisions, are attributed to self-obsession,
2:10:39lust and manipulation.
2:10:44The Secret History remains little known for a thousand years, until a manuscript copy
2:10:49is found in the Vatican library, and published.
2:10:56Historians have debated its contents ever since.
2:11:00A common view is that this work stems from Procopius’s later disillusionment with Justinian’s
2:11:06rule: the wars, taxes, and crucially, the influence of Theodora and Antonina.
2:11:14For it is a ferociously misogynistic attack, in which women are insatiable, scheming, deceptive
2:11:21and vengeful.
2:11:23But it is also clear that much of the Secret History is deliberate hyperbole and parody,
2:11:29not to be taken literally, or perhaps even seriously.
2:11:37Emperor Justinian died eight months after Belisarius, in 565.
2:11:43In such an age, to reign 38 years and die in bed, aged 83, was itself an astonishing
2:11:51achievement.
2:11:52His funeral, an event of stunning magnificence, saw him laid to rest in a golden tomb within
2:12:00the Church of the Holy Apostles, in Constantinople.
2:12:05He left a Roman Empire that stretched from the Caucasus to the coast of Spain, from the
2:12:12Alps to the Atlas Mountains.
2:12:16These conquests came at a vast cost in lives, treasure and human suffering.
2:12:23Nor could they be sustained.
2:12:25Three years after Justinian’s death, the Lombards fell upon Italy, conquering most
2:12:31of the peninsula.
2:12:33In the seventh century, Avars and Persians advanced to the walls of Constantinople…
2:12:40before the tidal wave of Muslim Arab conquest swept away much of the Empire.
2:12:48It has been argued that Justinian’s costly wars left the Eastern Roman Empire exhausted,
2:12:55unable to resist these new threats.
2:12:58But recent assessments place more emphasis on the
2:13:01blunders of his successors.
2:13:06Justinian had been immensely fortunate to be served by one of the great generals of
2:13:11Roman history, even though he did not always repay his loyalty.
2:13:18In all his commands, Belisarius distinguished himself as loyal, intelligent, humane and
2:13:25decisive.
2:13:26He was a skilled tactician who defied the odds at Dara.
2:13:30He waged a hearts and mind campaign to retake North Africa almost without loss…
2:13:37He liberated Rome, and held it in two desperate sieges.
2:13:45He has been called the Last Roman.
2:13:49The Empire would see few generals of his stature again.
2:13:59Big thanks to Legendarian for providing our ‘Total War: Attila’ gameplay footage.
2:14:05Check out his own YouTube channel for more videos on the military history of late antiquity.
2:14:11Thank you also to Professor David Parnell of Indiana University Northwest, our series
2:14:17consultant.
2:14:18You can follow David on Twitter @ByzantineProf, or via the link in our video description.
2:14:24And thank you, of course, to all the Epic History TV Patreon supporters, who make this
2:14:30channel possible.

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