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Tema tecnología 09: Sistemas informáticos: estructura, elementos componentes — Transcript

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0:00Good evening and welcome to another
0:03night of curiosity. Welcome to topic
0:06number nine, technology. Remember, we
0:10are doing the syllabus for preparing
0:13for secondary school exams in the
0:16specialty of technology. So, well,
0:18first of all, greetings to the people
0:20we have here today. There are very few
0:22people here, we started very, very late
0:24, so greetings to the incombustible
0:26Víctor Carrera, who today, although
0:28this is topic nine, since this is a
0:30review of the syllabus, has already
0:32seen all the topics, including the
0:34previous 71. So welcome, and also
0:36welcome to Noya de Vidre who is here
0:38enjoying the live broadcast with us. So
0:41welcome and welcome to all of you who
0:43are watching us from YouTube, where we
0:46have placed the 71 topics in the
0:49playlist of the syllabus for the exams.
0:52So, well, today we are going to talk
0:54about topic nine, computer systems,
0:56structure, elements, components and
0:58their function as a whole, programs,
1:01types and characteristics. So, let's
1:03get straight to it. Let's get started.
1:07Very good. Here we have Mario's
1:10presentation. So, come on, let's get to
1:16it. As I was saying, computer science
1:18topics, and today's topic is simple,
1:21okay? We're going to look at computer
1:23systems, structure, elements,
1:24components, and their function as a
1:26whole. The structure, elements, and
1:30their function as a whole, which would
1:33be the CPU, memory, inputs and outputs,
1:36buses, motherboard, chassis, and power
1:39supply, peripherals, and there we would
1:43have the various components. Then the
1:47programs, types and characteristics,
1:50components and functions in an
1:52educational system, I mean, sorry, in
1:54an operating system, calls to the
1:56operating system, interruptions and
1:59exceptions, and then the characteristic
2:01. Okay? With this we would basically
2:03have the entire syllabus. Very good. As
2:10always, in these new revisions of the
2:12syllabus, you can see that the intro is
2:13quite similar. It says, "The subject of
2:15technology contributes to responding to
2:18the needs of citizens in the face of
2:19the technological challenges and
2:21challenges posed by today's society,
2:23especially the growing digitalization.
2:25Thus, this subject serves as a basis
2:27not only for understanding social
2:29evolution, but also for being able to
2:31act with technical, scientific and
2:32ethical criteria in the exercise of
2:34responsible and active citizenship."
2:36Wait a moment, I have to correct this.
2:39I got it wrong. Okay. Okay. Very good.
2:46Uh, very good. Using the generation of
2:51knowledge as a driver of development
2:52and encouraging the participation of
2:54students on an equal basis with a
2:56comprehensive vision of technology,
2:58highlighting its social aspect. Because
3:01we have to understand that technology
3:02has a great social use. It says, "
3:04Computer systems accompany the daily
3:06life of our society at the end of the
3:0820th century. They have evolved
3:11exponentially in the last 40 years and
3:13have become fundamental tools for the
3:15development of most of the activities
3:17we carry out, both in professional
3:19practice and in education and praise.
3:22For example, what you would be watching
3:24right now, which would be a video or
3:26live broadcast, would be precisely what
3:30would be computing." It says, "The
3:32presence of computers and digital
3:35devices, smartphones, tablets and any
3:37other device is common in our daily
3:39lives and the knowledge, development
3:42and use of them is key to technology,
3:44the economy and social development." It
3:47says, "This topic aims to review the
3:49characteristics that govern most
3:51information processing systems and to
3:55show the structure and the most common
3:57elements of digital devices. To do this
4:00, it will first explain what a computer
4:03system consists of, along with its
4:06structure and basic operation. And
4:09secondly, it will describe how the
4:12structures of computer systems are
4:14configured. And finally, we'll talk
4:17about the programming part that makes
4:19these systems work. Okay, very good. I
4:23think we already have a slightly
4:25clearer idea here. Very good. It says,"
4:29Computer systems, structure elements,
4:32components and their function in the
4:34whole. "Okay, let's get a little bit up
4:37to date. Let's see, very good. It says,
4:40" A computer system, a computer system
4:43is a set of three fundamental
4:44components that allow information to be
4:47processed and stored. These components
4:49are hardware, the physical part,
4:51software, a set of programs, and
4:53personnel. We can define computer
4:56systems as sets of techniques that
4:59allow us to store and guarantee the
5:01security of information through digital
5:04systems. A digital system is any device
5:07designed to generate, transmit, process
5:10, or store digital signals. Remember,
5:14not all computers are digital; some
5:17computers are analog, okay? But most
5:24computers that we use today, except for
5:27very, very technical matters, are
5:29digital. The following sections will
5:32describe the general structure of
5:34microprocessor-based information
5:36processing systems, focusing on the
5:38characteristics of personal computers,
5:40since they have the most common
5:42structure, what they are used for, and
5:45because they serve as a reference for
5:47other computers, the structure of a
5:49computer. Basically, we have a figure
5:52here that explains it to us. It says, "
5:54Enter the information to enter the data
5:57." What will it do? First, it will
5:59process the data, organize it, store it
6:02, transform it, and then receive output
6:05information. Output information. Okay?
6:08And these will be the ones that come to
6:10us. Very good. It says, "The first step
6:12is to enter the input information and
6:15receive the processed data output
6:16information. This is done through the
6:20input and output system, right? Which
6:23manages, establishes, and maintains the
6:25relationship of the system with the
6:27outside world, understood as the
6:28peripheral elements that are not basic
6:30elements of the system. Very good. It
6:35says," Data processing takes place in
6:38the central processing unit, the CPU,
6:41okay? Which is the fundamental part of
6:44the system. Its function is to
6:46interpret and execute instructions,
6:48perform calculations, make logical
6:50decisions, data operations, etc. It
6:52says from now on it will be referred to
6:55by its English acronym, the CPU, okay?
6:58Central process unit, uh, because it is
7:00the most used term, CPU, because we
7:03have the memory, which is where we will
7:05store the information, okay? And the
7:08buses, which are the subsets of
7:10communication lines. It is the
7:11information that goes in and out of
7:13each of the sites through the
7:15communication channels. Very good, it
7:17says, "All the aforementioned elements
7:20are supported by a rigid support. This
7:22is the motherboard, which in turn is
7:25usually housed inside a box that will
7:28normally be a fairly large box like the
7:32one you have for your desktop computers
7:35. A very, very small box like the one
7:37for shipping. Well, this also includes
7:41the power supply. Laptops, for example,
7:43the power supply is on the outside of
7:45the case. Okay? We have to take that
7:48into account. And it says how the set
7:50of connectors to facilitate the
7:52connection of peripherals. In the
7:54following sections we are going to
7:56discuss all of these elements. It says,
7:58" Okay, let's discuss each of the
8:00elements and their function as a whole
8:02one by one. "It says," The CPU can be a
8:04single chip or a series of chips that
8:06perform arithmetic and logic
8:08calculations and that time and control
8:10the operations of the other elements of
8:12the system. "It says," Integration
8:14techniques have made it possible to
8:17develop a CPU chip called a
8:19microprocessor that incorporates
8:21additional functions and memory, okay?
8:24Typically, the microprocessor has both
8:26functions and memory. "It says,"
8:28Usually, the central processing unit is
8:31gated and composed of several
8:33fundamental sections. The first would
8:36be the arithmetic logic unit that
8:38provides the chip with its computing
8:41capacity and allows the performance of
8:44arithmetic logic operations. Very good.
8:49Then we have the registers which are
8:51temporary storage areas that contain
8:54data, keep track of instructions and
8:56maintain the location and results of
8:59said operations. Then we have the
9:02control section. Very good. What is the
9:12control section? It says it has the
9:14task of timing and regulating the
9:16operations of the entire computer
9:18system. Its instruction decoder reads
9:20the data configurations in the
9:22designated register and converts them
9:24into an activity. Then we have modern
9:30microprocessors have specialized memory
9:32sections called cache memories that
9:35serve to speed up the process, well,
9:37access to external memory or
9:39peripherals, okay? It will be what will
9:42allow us to better exchange information
9:44. It says, "Due to its length, I will
9:46try to explain the possible
9:48classifications of existing
9:49microprocessors, as well as detail the
9:51internal structure of the different
9:53generations of microprocessors that
9:55compete in the market, it's impossible.
9:58" Okay? Today, for example, I think we
10:01were today, in June 2022, I think we
10:05were on the 14 series of Intel. Uh, for
10:10example, in motherboards, uh, I don't
10:12even know where we're going. I'm pretty
10:15lost, but anyway, there's a number of
10:17components that is basically
10:18overwhelming. Okay. Uh, he says, "
10:23Because of its size, trying to explain.
10:25" Well, as we have already said,
10:28therefore, the scope of this
10:30presentation is limited to some
10:32characteristics and magnitudes related
10:34to processors, well, to microprocessors
10:36that significantly affect the rest of
10:39the elements that make up the computer.
10:42Very well, it says clock frequency.
10:44This is a quantitative factor that
10:47indicates the speed of the
10:49microprocessor's process. It normally
10:52originates from a quartz crystal that,
10:54when a certain voltage is applied,
10:57begins to vibrate, to oscillate at a
10:59certain frequency. This allows us to
11:02count time. The oscillator is usually a
11:06circuit external to the microprocessor
11:10implemented directly on the motherboard
11:12or integrated into some other circuit.
11:14Many times, current cycles can also be
11:17counted because we know that the
11:19current is very, very stable, etc.,
11:21etc. In other words, there are many
11:23ways to accurately count time. It says,
11:26"The machine instructions accepted by
11:28the microprocessor are broken down into
11:30a succession of operations, and each
11:36one of them consumes a certain number
11:38of clock cycles. Good evening, Aranzazu
11:42, welcome. Alright, alright, don't
11:45worry, we're almost empty today. You
11:47can practically sit in the front row."
11:49It says, the higher the clock frequency
11:52, the shorter the time it takes to
11:54execute the instructions in a program.
11:57Very good. It says, instruction
11:59parallelism. It says in a generic way,
12:01instruction parallelism consists of
12:04breaking the sequential execution of
12:06instructions, one after the other in
12:09time, to simultaneously execute several
12:15at the same time. This has been
12:17achieved throughout the different
12:19generations of integration by
12:20incorporating, well, additional
12:24processing units and more register
12:26banks. There are different ways to
12:29exploit parallelism. For example, if we
12:31talk about, well, we have an
12:33eight-thread microprocessor, right?
12:35Which allows eight threads to
12:37communicate simultaneously. Hm. Well,
12:40it says, come on, let's see.
12:42Segmentation. It says, "The process of
12:44executing an instruction is divided
12:47into n stages of similar duration, well
12:49, I don't know, a stage that lasts 2
12:52microseconds with the aim of processing
12:54n instructions simultaneously. Each
12:57instruction is in a different execution
13:00stage. The microprocessor needs n
13:03functional units working at the same
13:05time." He says, "Then we have
13:07superscalarity. An n-factor superscalar
13:10processor is one that duplicates the
13:12circuitry of some of its functional
13:15units n times in order to be able to
13:17execute the same NCU simultaneously in
13:21its respective computation stages. Then
13:23we have supersegmentation. He says,"
13:26It's a mix of the two previous ones. A
13:28segmented processor has duplicated
13:31functional units to execute several
13:34instructions in parallel. And these
13:37units are also segmented, so the number
13:40of instructions that can be executed is
13:42multiplied after a certain number of
13:44cycles. That would basically be the
13:47trick. "He says," Parallelism allows
13:49many instructions to be executed
13:51simultaneously, but such execution is
13:53done in a pre-established order. This
13:56concept should not be confused with
13:58multiprogramming. It consists of
14:00carrying out several different tasks
14:02simultaneously. What this does is
14:04organize how we manage information.
14:09Okay? What else do we have? Well, we
14:11have the integrated cache memory. "He
14:13says," It is normal to pay great
14:15attention to the number and quantity of
14:17instructions that are processed per
14:19unit of time. "He says," However,
14:21inside the processor, many more data
14:24accesses take place than actual
14:26operations. Many times, to perform an
14:29operation, the same data has to be
14:31moved eight times throughout the
14:33circuit. He says, "As a general rule,
14:36reading or writing data to memory is
14:39usually a much slower process than
14:41performing an operation. That is,
14:43taking data, moving it to a location,
14:46erasing where the data was taken from,
14:48trusting that the new data is written
14:51correctly, and so on, checking it, is
14:53slow. The term cache is an Anglicism
14:56that refers to fast-access memory. The
14:59goal is for the data that is going to
15:01be operated on to be available at the
15:04time of its execution. So,
15:06microprocessors integrate a series of
15:08fast-access memory units that optimize
15:11execution time. This is the move of the
15:13century, right? In other words, if I am
15:15going to work with this data and I know
15:17that I am going to need it, I am going
15:19to leave it nearby. I am going to leave
15:25it on a shelf that I can easily control
15:27, that I have quick access to." He says
15:30, "The drawbacks lie in how to ensure
15:32that this small portion of memory finds
15:35the data that is required for each
15:37operation, which is the slightly more
15:42complicated part. Okay. He says," I
15:48remember that in this topic someone
15:49explained to us that it was faster and
15:51safer to manage data in series rather
15:52than in parallel. "Yes. Uh, yes. I
15:54think we discussed it. The problem with
15:57this, I think it was Victor or
15:59Despertafer, I don't remember exactly
16:02now, who told us: that putting the data
16:05online was safer than starting to play
16:07with all the data simultaneously and
16:10recording, writing, rewriting, erasing
16:12a lot of data at the same time. Well,
16:15let's see, it's like working on an
16:17online job, because you'll probably
16:19make fewer mistakes than if all the
16:21jobs come to you simultaneously in a
16:24bunch of lines. But anyway, he says
16:26that it's normal to talk about success
16:28when an operation is performed with
16:30data that's in the cache and failure
16:32when the processor has tried to perform
16:34an operation and the data wasn't
16:36available in the cache, like," Oh, I
16:38couldn't find it, I have to do it again
16:40. "He says, on the other hand, a large
16:45cache size isn't good for several
16:47reasons. It loses speed. That is, if my
16:50fast-access shelf becomes huge, I have
16:52to go through that entire shelf again
16:55and again, and it becomes slower and
16:57slower. This process is not operational
17:00and increases the cost, but not the
17:02performance. And it has been proven
17:05that it is more appropriate to have
17:07several nested or complementary
17:09internal memory areas, such as area A,
17:12area B, area C, you know? It says," The
17:22levels of memory internal to the
17:24processor give rise to a hierarchy
17:27based on their proximity to their
17:29execution core. They can usually be
17:31distinguished by their different levels
17:32. First, we have the register bank, it
17:35says, which stores the data that is
17:37going to be processed immediately or
17:39the results obtained from an operation.
17:41"It says," Prefetch buffer for
17:44instructions or data. "It says," The
17:47simultaneous execution of several
17:49instructions requires the existence of
17:52some mechanism that supplies the
17:54instructions at the rate at which the
17:56processor executes them. Then we have
18:01the first-level cache, which is usually
18:04separated into two parts, one for data
18:06and one for instructions. And then we
18:09have the second-level cache, which
18:11would be a larger, more voluminous
18:13cache, okay? It is a cachet, therefore
18:15slower. It says, "It stores more
18:17information, but it is also slower than
18:19the previous one. It is usually
18:21integrated into the microprocessor or
18:23connected externally. Uh, it has been
18:26forced lately by the evolution of
18:28computer applications based on the
18:30massive use of data external to the
18:32microprocessor. In other words, since
18:34operations now take up a lot of space,
18:37of course, we need to have memory very
18:39close to the microprocessor. We can't
18:41be working with very, very small data.
18:44We need at least a processor, I don't
18:46know, of 64 bits, for the cache to be
18:47huge. Very good. Come on, let's talk
18:50about memory. Let's see. Very good,
18:57very good. Okay, it says memory.
18:59Depending on the characteristics of the
19:01microprocessor, its level of
19:03segmentation or the intended use of the
19:05computer, there may be more cache
19:07levels, either internal or external.
19:12Either internal or external to the
19:14microprocessor itself, organized in a
19:17certain order until reaching the main
19:19memory. Certain parameters of
19:22functionality and performance related
19:24to the main memory of the computer,
19:26well, of computers are the size, which
19:28is the parameter that describes the
19:30functionality of the memory, it
19:32measures the total amount of
19:33information that it is capable of
19:35storing. The most common unit of memory
19:38is the Megabyte, which has 1024 by 1024
19:41bytes. The minimum unit of information
19:44is the bit. A bit admits two values, 0
19:47and 1, true and false, on, off, okay?
19:50While a byte is the set of 8 bits. He
19:54says," Regarding performance, the
19:55parameters that best quantify memory
19:57are the following. The first would be
19:59latency, which is the memory access
20:01time. It characterizes the delay
20:04associated with a data query. It is
20:06normally measured by the response time.
20:09Time elapsed from when the chip
20:11receives the address of a cell until it
20:14returns the data found in it. In
20:16segmented designs, latency is measured
20:18by the cycle time, which is the time
20:20elapsed between the acceptance of two
20:22consecutive addresses. That is, from
20:24when I told you, "Go get this," you
20:27know? until I can send you to fetch the
20:29next piece of data. That would be the
20:31cycle time. Okay, latency is how long
20:33it takes to process two different
20:35pieces of data. Very good. Then we have
20:39the bus width, which quantifies the
20:41speed of data transport through the
20:43memory bus as a result of the product
20:45of its width, as we will measure it in
20:48bytes. Very good. By the working
20:52frequency measured in megabytes. As a
20:54result of measuring Megahertz times by
20:56gives a magnitude of megabytes per
20:59second which gives an idea of the data
21:01that can be read or stored in memory
21:03per unit of time. Very good. The
21:07operation of bytes per second would
21:09give us megabytes per second. Well, the
21:12operation that would give us megabytes
21:14per second is incorrect, since
21:15frequency is measured in terms of 10,
21:17while bytes are measured in terms of 2.
21:18In other words, there is no way to do
21:20that operation directly. You have to
21:22first transform everything and then you
21:24can start combining. It says 1
21:25megahertz is 10 to the 3rd power times
21:2710 to the 3rd power Hz. It is 10 to the
21:306th power Hz. And 1 MB is 1024 times
21:321024 by it says, "However, it provides
21:35a useful approximate value to be able
21:37to make comparisons between different
21:39products." Yeah, sure. Let's see, uh,
21:42megahertz are in base 10, that's not a
21:44problem. I'll also tell you that here
21:48instead of using the potential term of
21:5110, I would have said base 10, okay?
21:54That is to say, hertz are in base 10
21:57and the bytes are in base 2. In other
22:00words, let's remember that 1 MB is 2 to
22:03the 10th power of bytes. Uh, however,
22:07uh, also say that it's that, that it's
22:10approximately 1024, which is not
22:13exactly this, but anyway, it's quite
22:15similar. It says memory hierarchy, it
22:18says, "The organization of these memory
22:21levels and the way of accessing each
22:23other is determined by the memory
22:25hierarchy." It says, "The memory levels
22:28are shown in figure 2. Essentially,
22:30it's about distinguishing the
22:32information that the CPU handles at a
22:34given moment, information that is read
22:37or written to the registers and the
22:39information that will be needed later
22:42and that is saved on the hard disk."
22:45Very good. Okay, here we have, for
22:48example, the issue of hierarchies, uh,
22:50according to capacity and speed. The
22:52lower we go, the more capacity we have
22:54and the higher we go, the more speed we
22:57have. What do we have at the very
22:58bottom? Where we have the most capacity
23:00. Well, basically, we have the hard
23:04drive. Then, a little faster, we have
23:07the RAM memory, then we have the cache
23:09memory, which would be level 1, level 2
23:12, level 3. And then, finally and much
23:14faster, we would have the processor
23:16registers, okay? That's where we have
23:19the highest of all. Okay, it says, "The
23:29size of the registers is limited and
23:32their access time is determined by the
23:34processing speed of the microprocessor.
23:37The storage capacity on a hard drive is
23:40high, okay? Remember that now we have
23:4364 hard drives of 120 and some TB, in
23:47other words, real storage monsters. He
23:50says," Its data transmission speed is
23:53also extremely high compared to the
23:56processing speed. In between there are
24:00a series of auxiliary levels, so that
24:01each level is smaller and faster, but
24:07also the most expensive for each byte
24:09of information that we want to store.
24:10Even so, it must be said that the cost
24:12has dropped a lot. Consider that we
24:15have RAMs of several gigabytes today,
24:17when before a computer with 1 gigabyte
24:20of capacity was like a NASA computer.
24:23And today we have that capacity in RAM.
24:26"He says," At each level there are
24:30information structures. The basic unit
24:31of information is called a block. Its
24:33size determines memory management. "
24:35which says," Ultimately, blocks of
24:37information are going to be transmitted
24:38from one level to another in a
24:40hierarchy of memories. "Very well, he
24:43says," The presence of the desired
24:45block at a given instant in the level
24:48is called a hit. "On the contrary,
24:50attempting to access a block of
24:52information that is not at the searched
24:55level is a failure. Okay, very good. I
24:58think we had that clear. It says," The
25:04relationship between the number of
25:06times a hit occurs and the number of
25:08times a miss occurs is the hit rate.
25:11Each time a miss occurs, a certain
25:13amount of time is lost. Sure, because
25:15we have a miss, we go back to searching
25:17for the data and now maybe we have a
25:19hit, but we have already used up a
25:20cycle, we have used up time, because
25:22each time a miss occurs, a certain
25:24amount of time is lost in accessing a
25:26lower level to retrieve the desired
25:28information. And move this information
25:30that I just asked you for up a level. "
25:33And so, the hit rate indicates the
25:35frequency of access to the lower level.
25:39Very good. It says," The access time
25:41can be understood as the period of time
25:44needed to determine whether an access
25:47is a hit or a miss. "Sorry, another
25:50second, right? The miss penalty is the
25:53time used to replace a block with the
25:55one from the lower level. It says more
26:03about the time to provide it to the
26:04device that requested it. That is, hey,
26:06bring me this, they'll upload it to the
26:09level, hey, I'll take it and upload it
26:12to the next level. Okay, it's broken
26:14down into the time to access the first
26:16word of the block in a failure, access
26:18time, and the time to transfer the
26:20remaining words of the block. Okay,
26:22let's go. Optimal dimensions of a
26:23little bit, how big this has to be. It
26:27says," The size of the registers
26:28determines the size of the block as the
26:30basic unit of information. The
26:32first-level cache, usually called L1.
26:34You'll see, uh, sorry. Well,
26:47implemented within the microprocessor,
26:49is usually designed to accommodate
26:51several blocks of. As has been hinted
26:53at, listing the number and size of the
26:55registers and the size of the HL1 does
26:57not imply that the computer will run
26:59faster, because, in reality, what is
27:01being done is simultaneously increasing
27:03the penalty for misses. To improve the
27:09speed of the microprocessor, it is more
27:11important to improve the hit rate.
27:12Consider that no matter how fast my
27:16cache memory is, if it misses a lot, I
27:19am basically wasting a lot of time. In
27:21other words, in the end what I am
27:22interested in is getting it right more
27:24often and avoiding those misses that
27:26make me waste so much time. Consider
27:28that each miss costs me almost two hits
27:30of time. It says, "Well, uh, it does
27:33not imply that I order it taat. To
27:35improve the speed of the microprocessor
27:37, it is more important to improve the
27:39hit rate, as we have said, and this is
27:42achieved by nesting several levels of
27:44cache memory, applying hit criteria to
27:46ensure hits occur, the principle of
27:48locality, since we must not forget that
27:50the more cache memory is implemented
27:52inside or outside the microprocessor,
27:55the higher the cost will be. We must be
27:57clear about this. Achieving a balance
28:00in all the concepts discussed will make
28:02a microprocessor or motherboard
28:04successful in the market. For example,
28:06in current computers, a typical
28:08configuration may be the following: HL1
28:11internal to the microprocessor between
28:1316 and 64 KB. Eh, KL L2 from 256 to 512
28:17KB, which can also be internal. And the
28:21HCH L3 external to the microprocessor,
28:24which can be between 512 KB and 1 MB.
28:27These units we are talking about are
28:29current. Uh, uh, this can change in
28:32football, it can be implemented on the
28:35motherboard, but also on the main
28:38memory module. The size of main memory,
28:41normally implemented with RAM memory
28:43modules, is normally determined by the
28:45size of the programs that are going to
28:47be executed on the computer. It says,"
28:49The transfer between the cache memory
28:52levels is managed by the motherboard or
28:54control circuitry or by control signals
28:57from the microprocessor. Data readings
29:00or writings to main memory, as well as
29:02information transfers to the hard disk,
29:04are managed by the operating system or
29:06the set of programs that are executed
29:08on the computer. Okay? Now we have the
29:12principle of locality and the
29:14replacement methods. It says, "As has
29:16already been mentioned, it is important
29:19to look for criteria for replacing
29:20memory blocks that allow us to improve
29:23the hit rate, which in the end is the
29:25game, uh, avoiding failures. Always
29:27think about this, uh, that we have to
29:29try to avoid failures because they make
29:31us lose a lot, a lot, a lot of time.
29:33Very good. Uh, he says," One of the
29:36most implemented criteria is the
29:38principle of locality, which is based
29:40on two principles: Temporal locality.
29:43If a piece of data has been referenced,
29:45it is very likely that it will be
29:47referenced again soon. That is, if I
29:49use up a piece of data, it is very
29:50likely that I will use it again.
29:52Special quality. If a piece of data is
29:57referenced, it is very likely that the
29:58elements close to it will soon be
30:00referenced. If I take so-and-so data,
30:02it is very possible that so-and-so plus
30:04one will take it right now. "The latter
30:06means that as soon as a piece of data
30:08is requested from a lower level of
30:10memory, the cache of the next level
30:12dumps the data plus all the ones that
30:14follow according to size. In other
30:17words, I take so-and-so, I take
30:19so-and-so and eight more or 10 more,
30:21whichever ones you see fit in
30:23anticipation of them being requested in
30:25the following operations and thus
30:27saving time. Uh, according to the
30:30location of a block, three types of
30:32cache can be distinguished. Direct
30:34correspondence. Each block can only be
30:36placed in a specific place in the
30:38memory. Associative memory. Each block
30:41can occupy any location. This would be
30:44chaotic storage. Set-associative cache.
30:49The block can be in a restricted set of
30:51positions. That is, I can place it
30:54anywhere, but these five belong
30:56together, okay? So when I take this one
30:59, it will be this one plus the next
31:01four. Very good. Uh, it says," Each
31:08block in the cache has an identifying
31:10label. The cache can contain invalid
31:12blocks, so a system is needed to
31:15indicate which blocks are correct and
31:17which are obsolete. For this, a
31:19validity bit is usually used in the
31:21label that indicates at all times
31:23whether the address is valid or not. "
31:25It says," When a failure occurs, ah, a
31:30new block must be added to memory,
31:32replacing an existing one. In
31:34direct-mapped cache, there is no doubt,
31:36a block with invalid data is replaced
31:38by the requested block. That's it, no,
31:41there is no problem. In associative
31:45caches, the issue is a little more
31:47complicated, since it is necessary to
31:49determine among the candidate blocks to
31:51be replaced which one is going to be
31:53the one that we have to eliminate.
31:55There are three replacement methods,
31:57right? Well, random, the victim is
31:59chosen indiscriminately, boom,
32:00whichever one happens to be there and
32:03that one has fallen. What happens is
32:05that the next piece of data that you
32:07can search for might be one that you
32:08needed now. So, you have loaded a piece
32:10of data that you needed. Replace it
32:12using the least recent one, that is,
32:15the one that has been there the longest
32:17, which is probably already obsolete,
32:19or a least used algorithm that replaces
32:21the block that has been read the fewest
32:24times. Very good. Then we have the
32:28inputs and outputs, right? If ah or IO,
32:31like any system. I mean, like any other
32:39information processing system, it
32:41receives a series of data, operates on
32:43them and as a consequence returns data.
32:46The information can enter in the form
32:48of commands that are written from a
32:50keyboard, information read from a data
32:53storage system or through a network
32:55connection or a USB port. Once
32:57processed, the computer displays the
32:59results on a screen or monitor. It
33:04writes data to a disk, sends
33:06information to a printer, generates
33:08sound through speakers, and so on. It
33:10will produce outputs that are no more
33:12and no less. It says, "Each of the
33:15aforementioned elements, also called
33:17peripherals, has a specific connection
33:20system consisting of a series of
33:22physical wires through which various
33:25electrical signals are transmitted,
33:27following their own standards and
33:29protocols, as well as circuitry to
33:31adapt said electrical signals and
33:34interpret their information." In other
33:37words, this goes through cables,
33:39through wires, and the data will move.
33:41In general, input and output units are
33:44the units or systems designed to manage
33:47and control parts of the device that do
33:49not directly belong to the CPU or main
33:52memory. Very good. The buses, right? Uh
33:58, they would be the paths through which
34:00the data flows, okay? They are the
34:02physical wires through which the data
34:04flows, right? It had the set of lines
34:06and so on. And therefore, for example,
34:09imagine what we have. We have both
34:12input and output peripherals, right?
34:15Which would be connected to an
34:17expansion bus, a sound card, a USB
34:19bridge, a PCI socket, an ID bus, a
34:22network adapter. Well, we will have the
34:24memory colors that will be connected to
34:26the memory bus, a microprocessor that
34:28would be on the local bus. All this
34:30would be controlled by the chipset,
34:32which for example would send the data
34:33to the graphics card and would be what
34:35you would be seeing right now through
34:37the monitor. It says, "The grouped
34:43lines can be of several types. Address
34:46lines that are linked to the capacity
34:49to access different memory locations,
34:52data lines that determine the width of
34:55the information that is transmitted.
34:58This parameter multiplied by the
35:00transmission frequency of the bus
35:02determines the best-known performance
35:04measure, the bandwidth, which indicates
35:07the communication speed. Control lines
35:09that are defined by the transmission
35:11protocol, uh, power lines that
35:13facilitate power supply to the
35:15peripheral, can be optional depending
35:18on the interface, okay? This would
35:20depend on the interface we choose. Very
35:23good. It says, well, figure 3 basically
35:27explains what we have already seen,
35:29okay? Uh, it says," Computers have
35:32circuits called genetically trained MA
35:35controllers, which are called direct
35:41memory access. "Very good. It says that
35:43they allow some peripherals to
35:45communicate directly with the main
35:47memory. The microprocessor does not
35:49intervene during this data transfer,
35:50but it does intervene in its control
35:52lines. Then we would have the
35:54motherboard, the chassis, the power
35:56supply. Okay? Here we would have a
35:58series of important elements, okay? The
36:00board would be the skeleton, it is
36:02where all these elements that we have
36:04been discussing are, okay? Uh, it would
36:07also be where we had what we call the
36:10chipset. The chipset is where the
36:13elements that manage the connections
36:16between the various elements are. Let's
36:19go to the motherboard. Okay? And well,
36:22that's where it would go. Well, where
36:24we also have the CPU. Remember that the
36:29chassis is generally called the
36:31computer case and it is also usually
36:34called the CPU. In other words, when
36:36many people show you the computer case
36:37they say," That's the CPU. "No, no,
36:39guys, the CPU is the little card, the
36:41microprocessor that you have inside.
36:43Everything else is not the CPU. But
36:46okay. And then we have the peripherals.
36:48What would be a peripheral? Well, for
36:49example, the headphones. The microphone
36:52that you're listening to me through,
36:54the mouse on your phone, the keyboard
36:56that I type on and I can give you
36:58information, etc., etc., the screen
37:00that you're using, the camera that
37:02you're watching, all of these, all of
37:04these are peripherals, okay? They're
37:07peripheral elements to the computer,
37:10okay? That allow us to have both inputs
37:12and outputs. For example, my keyboard.
37:15My keyboard has the input part that
37:17allows me to press keys and it has
37:20outputs like, for example, it shows
37:22whether my caps lock is on or not. If
37:25it's on and the light is on, it's
37:26telling me. It's an output, okay? My
37:29screen is eminently a data output. My
37:33speakers, well, would be a data output
37:35or my microphone would be a data input;
37:37also an output, because I have a
37:38connection to listen to the data output
37:40. But well, these can also be called
37:43human-machine interfaces, because they
37:45allow the machine to communicate with
37:47people or they also allow machines to
37:50communicate with other machines. Okay?
37:54Then we also have storage peripherals,
37:57which would be the devices that store
38:00information. Very good. It says," It
38:08should be noted that according to this
38:10definition, a RAM memory module
38:12inserted into the motherboard does not
38:14fall into this classification, since
38:16the information it stores is lost the
38:19moment the power supply is cut off. An
38:22SSD would be a storage peripheral. RAM
38:25memory would not be a storage
38:27peripheral. For example, if a screen is
38:31displaying data, it is not a storage
38:34peripheral. The term mass data storage
38:42systems is also used. To refer to this
38:46type of device, peripherals are
38:47considered whether they are located
38:49inside the computer board or inside the
38:51computer case, or if they are external.
38:54Ultimately, a computer needs a space
38:57where the programs and data it needs
38:59for its normal operation are stored.
39:02This information must also be preserved
39:04when the power supply is cut off. Of
39:07particular interest is the device
39:09generically called the boot device or
39:11physical location where the first
39:13program that runs when the computer is
39:16turned on is stored, which is usually
39:18the hard drive. Next, they will discuss
39:22various storage methods. Very well, it
39:26says hard drive, right? The hard drive
39:29disk is a non-volatile data storage
39:33device, right? That's why we call it a
39:35hard drive. It uses a magnetic
39:38recording system to store digital data.
39:41This would basically be what we would
39:45be using to store general data,
39:47programs, and so on. Hard drives are
39:51sensitive to shocks and vibrations,
39:53right? An improper shutdown can also
39:55damage a hard drive. They were widely
39:57used for a very, very long time and
40:00little by little, although they have
40:02not changed for certain stations that
40:04require greater security, they are
40:07being replaced, especially in domestic
40:09use, by Solid State Drive Discs, which
40:12would be SSDs, which are devices that
40:16store data on microchips with
40:18interconnected flash memories, so they
40:20could be considered an evolution of USB
40:23memories. They do not have physical
40:26heads to record data. He says, "A few
40:28years ago, the price in the United
40:29States was high, but right now, it's
40:31going down a lot because its production
40:33cost has gone down a lot, a lot, and
40:35its use has increased a lot. The HDD,
40:37right?,which is digital versatile disc,
40:40right?,which allowed us to save data.
40:42They came in 4, 7, 17 GB, depending on
40:45whether they were monolayer, BAP,
40:47trilayer, etc. They could be recordable
40:50, rewritable, read-only, positive
40:52recordable, negative recordable,
40:55depending on the technology used. There
40:57were quite a few. There were quite a
41:00few. There were also Blu-rays. There
41:04were other discs that I don't remember,
41:07I think HDDVDs also came out, which
41:09were 50 GB or 100 GB, I don't remember
41:12right now, but oh well. We also had
41:18Flash memories, which would basically
41:21be what we now know as SSDs, which is
41:26electrically rewritable read-only
41:28memory, right? Be careful, it is
41:31information that can only be read once.
41:35That's what Interesting thing about
41:37memory is that every time you read it,
41:39you erase the information and you have
41:41to write it again. Very good. Uh, it
41:47says," It also offers interesting
41:49features such as its great resistance
41:51to shocks, low consumption and zero
41:53noise level. A hard drive makes noise.
41:56A flash memory is completely silent
41:57because it has no moving parts. However
42:00, all types of flash memory only allow
42:02a limited number of writes and erasures
42:04, uh, depending on the cell, the
42:06precision of the manufacturing process
42:08and the voltage needed to reduce it.
42:11Okay? Uh, I must also say that even so,
42:13they are quite high. I have USB memory
42:15sticks that still work and have been
42:17around for years and years and years
42:19also because they were designed for low
42:22use. If you are using them every day at
42:25all hours, you burn them out. Okay,
42:27very good. Let's look at section two,
42:29which would be programs, types and
42:30characteristics. So, well, let's see,
42:32let's see a little bit and we're going
42:34to go over it a little bit here in the
42:35programs section. Very good, give me a
42:37second. Very good. It says, "Can a
42:46program be defined as a part of a
42:48sequence of processes and instructions
42:50organized to perform a specific task on
42:52a computer or computing system?" It
42:54says, "Programs can be pre-installed on
42:56the device to be used, considering the
42:59operating system that controls the
43:01operation of the computer system or
43:03they can be added programs to perform
43:05specific functions. The operating
43:10system or OS is a set of programs that
43:13directly control the physical hardware
43:15resources of a computer, CPU, main
43:18memory and peripherals, providing a
43:20virtual machine that makes it easier,
43:23well, easier to use than the underlying
43:26hardware. Basically this operating
43:29system is like a simplified computer.
43:31The operating system is the lowest
43:33software layer of a computer, as
43:34reflected in a figure that we are going
43:37to see now, which is figure 4,
43:38responsible for managing, coordinating
43:41activities and carrying out the
43:42exchange of resources and acts as an
43:44intermediary for the applications that
43:46are executed. Very good. First of all
43:49we have the hardware, which is the
43:51physical part, they are cables, they
43:53are the components. Then above this we
43:55have the operating system, which is
43:58what makes all the computers a little
44:00bit more uniform. Then we have the
44:02translators, the editors, the command
44:05interpreter and above this we have the
44:09application programs, for example,
44:12Twitch, Chrome or whatever you're using
44:16to watch this live, to watch the Very
44:19good, very good, very good, very good.
44:24Well, it says," In this figure you can
44:26see how the operating system is the
44:27only layer that works directly with the
44:29hardware. That's why operating systems
44:32are very sensitive to hardware changes.
44:35Above the operating system is a level
44:37formed by translators, text editors,
44:39and command interpreters. The first two
44:42types of programs, together with
44:44linkers and debuggers, are useful for
44:46creating a comfortable level of
44:48abstraction for program development.
44:51The union of the programs of the two
44:53intermediate layers of the figure makes
44:56up the system software of a computer.
44:58Finally, there is the level formed by
45:01the application programs, which do not
45:03provide service to other programs, but
45:06rather their purpose is to solve
45:08specific problems. I want to be able to
45:11calculate something or have a
45:14spreadsheet or have a Word document or
45:17whatever, well that will be the
45:19application program. Very good, it's
45:23what we users usually use. Then we have
45:26components and functions of an
45:28operating system. The first thing will
45:32be process management, okay? Which will
45:34manage, create, and destroy the
45:37processes to organize the processes,
45:39provide mechanisms for them to
45:42communicate and synchronize, for
45:44example, how all the processes
45:46communicate and how the components of
45:49an operating system would be made. This
45:52is all that the operating system has to
45:55touch and who depends on whom. Security
45:57would be the one that would manage
45:59everything and communications, for
46:00example, would also be dependent.
46:02Everything would depend on security.
46:05Very good. It says, "Process management
46:08could be similar to, uh, office work.
46:11You can have a list of tasks to be done
46:13and set high, medium, or low priorities
46:15for these. For example, we should start
46:18by doing the highest security tasks, oh
46:21, sorry, the highest priority, and then
46:23finish with the lowest priority ones."
46:26Very good, it says, "Once the task is
46:28done, it is crossed out, this can lead
46:30to the problem that low priority tasks
46:33would never get executed and remain on
46:35the list forever, which is something we
46:37cannot afford. To solve this, you can
46:40assign high priority to older tasks.
46:43This is a pretty interesting management
46:45model. As tasks get older, they get
46:49higher and higher priority. Okay, main
46:53memory management. Okay, it says,"
47:02Memory is a table of words or bytes,
47:05each referenced by a unique address.
47:09This fast-access data store is shared
47:13by the CPU and the input/output devices
47:16. It is volatile and loses its contents
47:18in the event of system failures. The
47:21operating system is responsible for
47:23knowing which parts of memory are being
47:26used and by whom, deciding which
47:29processes to load into memory when
47:31space becomes available, and allocating
47:34and reclaiming memory space when needed
47:37. Okay, okay, okay, okay, okay. "It
47:45says, secondary storage management. A
47:48secondary storage system is necessary
47:51because main memory, primary storage,
47:53is volatile and too small to store all
47:56programs and data. It is also necessary
47:59to maintain data that is not convenient
48:01to keep in main memory. The operating
48:03system will therefore be responsible
48:06for, uh, planning the disks, managing
48:08free space, allocating storage. The
48:11input/output system consists of a
48:13temporary storage system, cache, a
48:15device manager interface, and another
48:18for specific devices. The operating
48:20system must manage the temporary
48:22storage of inputs. outputs and handle
48:24interrupts from input and output
48:26devices. Okay, it says file system. It
48:35says," Files are collections of related
48:37information defined by their creators.
48:40They store programs in source and
48:42object code and data such as images,
48:45text, database information, etc. The
48:47operating system, therefore, will be
48:49responsible for creating, deleting
48:52files and directories, functions to
48:54manipulate files and directories,
48:56establishing correspondence to files
48:59and making backup copies. They can be
49:02done in many formats, these are not the
49:04only ones. And normally, you will see
49:06that many times you will have FAT 32,
49:09you will have XFAT, etc. Then we also
49:12have the protection systems, which will
49:15be everything that will control what
49:17things can be accessed and what cannot
49:20be accessed. It will also control the
49:23communications system, as well as the
49:26system programs, the resource manager,
49:29which is usually this little program
49:32that opens when you use the control by
49:35deleting to see how the computer is
49:37working. Well, all the data appears
49:39there. This is always managed by the
49:41operating system itself, whether you
49:43see it or not, and it controls a large
49:46number of computer properties. Very
49:50good. Then we have the issue of calls
49:53to the operating system. It says, "
49:55Calls to the operating system are those
49:57that run application programs to
49:59request a service from the operating
50:01system. Hey, tell me what time it is."
50:03So, the application program asks the
50:05operating system, "Hey, give me the
50:07time you have, hey, hey, give me access
50:10to the graphics, I want to do something
50:12. Hey, hey, what do I know, you know?
50:16Give me access to the peripheral that I
50:19need to control the position of the
50:22user's mouse, okay? It's the one that
50:25allows me to connect one thing to
50:27another, okay?" Very good, it says, "
50:28The corresponding calls must have the
50:30same format and the call to the new
50:32operating system must give the same
50:34results as the corresponding one in
50:36front." Okay. Execution mode on a CPU.
50:40Then we'll have the topic of system
50:43calls, system call interface libraries.
50:46Okay. Then we have the topic of
50:48interrupts and exceptions, which is one
50:51of the things that the operating system
50:53can do and it's interesting. The
50:55operating system says, it says, it
51:00occupies an intermediate position
51:02between application programs and
51:04hardware, uh, it doesn't limit itself
51:06to using the hardware at the request of
51:08applications, since there are
51:10situations in which it is the hardware
51:12that needs the operating system code to
51:14be executed. In such situations, the
51:16hardware must be able to call the
51:18system with one of the following
51:19objects. It says, "Some input/output
51:22device needs attention, an error
51:24situation has occurred while trying to
51:27execute a program instruction." It says
51:29, "In both cases, the action performed
51:31is not ordered by the application
51:33program, that is, it is not listed in
51:34the program. Uh, that is, something has
51:36happened, something has happened and
51:38the program has hung. So, the operating
51:40system has to say," Tuch, get out, stop
51:42bothering me, come on, my system is
51:44being used. "Okay, so, an interruption
51:46is the signal sent by an input/output
51:49device of the CPU to indicate that the
51:52operation being performed has finished,
51:55and an exception is an error situation
51:57that will have to be handled by the
52:00operating system. So, how will
52:02interruptions be handled? Well, the
52:06handling depends on the input/output
52:08system, since it will interrupt the
52:10input and output. This will depend on
52:12how it is done. Very good. So, the
52:15importance of interruptions. It says,"
52:17The interruption handling mechanism
52:19allows the operating system to use the
52:22CPU to service an application while
52:24another one waits for one to finish.
52:27Man. Hello, Victor. Welcome back. We
52:32are finishing. "It says," The hardware
52:34is responsible for notifying the
52:35operating system when the output device
52:37has finished. Ah. Okay, to ensure that
52:45the program that was waiting for the
52:46device continues to run. "It says," At
52:49certain time intervals, it may be
52:51advisable not to accept interruption
52:53signals. Therefore, interrupts can be
52:55inhibited by the program, although the
52:57interrupts themselves should not be
52:59able to do so. "That is to say, what a
53:01program cannot say is," Hey, operating
53:02system, don't bother me. "You know?
53:04Because when it hangs, the computer
53:08crashes. He says an example of
53:10interrupt synchronization is the
53:12storage of characteristics of
53:14characters entered using the keyboard.
53:16He says," When a character is entered,
53:18the device's data register is encoded
53:20and a status register bit is also
53:21activated that creates an interrupt in
53:23the hardware. "That is to say, when I
53:26press, uh, when I press, for example,
53:29the letter E, it only presses once;
53:31that is to say, the data only enters
53:34once, unless I don't have it, for like
53:375 or 10 seconds, in which case, uh, it
53:39doesn't stop entering, but at least
53:42during the first few seconds the beat
53:45only enters once; that is to say, it's
53:47not a continuous entry. I have to press
53:50it again if I want it to enter again,
53:53uh? No, man, no. Don't worry, it throws
53:57blue, don't worry. It says, exceptions.
54:01When the CPU tries to execute an
54:03incorrectly constructed instruction,
54:05the control unit throws an exception to
54:07allow the operating system to execute
54:09the appropriate treatment. Unlike an
54:12interrupt, the instruction in progress
54:15is aborted, it says, exceptions, like
54:18interrupts, must be correctly
54:21identified. Very good, it says," Come
54:26on, let's go, for example, to the
54:28characteristics, now. That is to say,
54:34yes, try it, try it, try it. Uh, you'll
54:37see that the first one took me a while
54:39and then the following ones will come
54:42in quickly. On a Mac, the accents
54:46appear. Wow, this is good. I didn't
54:48know this one. How great, how great.
54:50Sure, on a PC keyboard, right? On a PC
54:55keyboard, a key appears and after a
54:57while, if you have the operating system
55:00configured like this, the same key
55:02signal keeps coming in other times.
55:04Very good. It says, "Task management.
55:07Uh, single-tasking, well, only one
55:09process can be executed." Wow, Victor,
55:14I didn't know you were a Mac user. Uh,
55:17only one process can be executed, apart
55:19from the processes of the operating
55:21system itself at a given time. Once a
55:23process starts executing, it will
55:25continue doing so until it finishes.
55:27And multitasking, well, we would have
55:30several tasks simultaneously, okay? In
55:33terms of user management, well, it
55:35could be single-user, multi-user, okay?
55:38Uh, resource management, well, whether
55:40it is centralized or distributed. And
55:44well, let's get to the conclusion of
55:47the topic. Very good. He says, "This
55:51topic has explained how computer
55:54systems work and their structure,
55:57especially personal computers.
55:59Knowledge of the internal workings of
56:02computer systems is the basis for
56:04developing students 'digital competence
56:06. This is where I wanted to get to.
56:09This is why they have put it back in
56:11CDA and it responds to the didactic
56:13knowledge of digitalization in the
56:16personal learning environment. Some
56:18characteristics and parameters commonly
56:20used to compare models and
56:22configurations have been presented,
56:24introducing the basic notions of
56:25computer architecture with the
56:27explanation of basic hardware elements.
56:30In the last section, here are two
56:32points, the basic fundamentals of
56:34operating systems have been reviewed.
56:36Operating systems, their components,
56:38functions and characteristics. Very
56:40good, he says," The technology subject
56:42continues both the cross-disciplinary
56:44approach of the discipline during the
56:46primary equation stage, where students
56:49begin to develop design projects and
56:51computational thinking, as well as the
56:53technology and digitalization subject.
56:56Compulsory secondary education also
56:59allows students to gain skills in depth
57:02and develop an entrepreneurial attitude
57:05for future studies or professional
57:08activities. So, well, guys, let's say
57:11goodbye with this because this closes
57:14the topic. Let's say goodbye to the
57:16people on YouTube. Well, guys, thank
57:19you very much for being here watching
57:21us one more day in this video about the
57:24syllabus for preparing for secondary
57:26school entrance exams in the technology
57:28specialty. We've already done topic
57:31nine, the new review of topic nine.
57:33Remember that you can find this topic
57:35in a playlist that includes the 71
57:37topics for preparing for secondary
57:38school entrance exams, just like today,
57:40and I'll also show you where we got the
57:43documentation from. And of course, if
57:45you pause it, you can read the
57:46documentation and you can also listen
57:48to it, in case you want to listen to it
57:50simply in podcast mode and be able to
57:51do other things. Thank you very much to
57:53everyone for the support you've been
57:55giving me on YouTube. Quite a lot,
57:56honestly. Many people are already
57:58watching the live broadcasts and I hope
58:00they are learning and I hope that this
58:02helps them improve their knowledge or,
58:04if they are preparing for the
58:05competitive exams they have, a little
58:07more luck. In any case, thank you very
58:09much for everything. Hey, if you liked
58:11the video, please like it, share it,
58:12subscribe to the channel and we'll see
58:14you here one more day on the Mar de
58:16Curiosidad channel. Greetings and good
58:18luck. M.

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