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Progressive Movement (captioned) — Transcript

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0:16♪
0:35♪ [Patriotic music]
0:42♪
1:36[Man] In the battle with the slum,
1:38we win or we perish.
1:41Either wipe out the slum, or it wipes out us.
1:45There is no middle way.
1:48Jacob Riis, 1902.
1:52[Man] There was a common and widespread spirit
1:53of revolt among the people,
1:56a movement of the new generation toward more democracy.
1:58Nearly everyone felt it.
2:01Robert La Follette, 1911.
2:04[Narrator] Between 1870 and 1920,
2:0726 million immigrants came to live in the United States.
2:12After 1900, most came from Southern and Eastern Europe
2:16and settled mainly in the largest cities.
2:19Here, they worked in small sweatshops
2:21and giant industrial workplaces
2:24which boomed like they never had before.
2:30A single company--
2:31John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil--
2:33controlled 90% of all oil business
2:36in the United States.
2:39Corporations conspired with each other
2:41to keep prices high and wages low,
2:44swindling consumers and workers in a single stroke.
2:49Violent labor strikes,
2:51corporate giants driving smaller operators
2:54out of business,
2:55cities plagued by crime and poverty...
2:58to many Americans, it appeared that industrialization
3:02was threatening the future of the nation.
3:07What would become of the nation's cities,
3:09flooded with new people and new problems?
3:13What would become of the nation's gigantic industries,
3:16gaining so much steam and power?
3:19What would become of the United States itself?
3:23These were the enormous questions
3:25that progressivism would try to answer.
3:41The nation was justly proud of its democratic heritage.
3:45But how could democracy survive
3:46the grave new challenges of a brave new century?
3:51Some of the first answers were provided by women.
3:55The most well-known was Jane Addams,
3:57who tried to bring the poor and the rich,
4:00the immigrant and the native-born together
4:02under a single roof.
4:04She called it Hull House.
4:08Occupying an old building
4:09in an immigrant neighborhood of chicago,
4:11Addams and her fellow residents
4:13provided newcomers with English lessons,
4:16employment advice, and child care.
4:19Women also pressed for expanded government services
4:22which they called municipal housekeeping
4:25or, more commonly, progressivism.
4:28[Man] progressivism became a word
4:30on everyone's lips
4:31in the early 20th century,
4:34and it meant the quest to make progress,
4:37to bring about reforms
4:40that would tend to some severe problems
4:43that were plaguing American society,
4:46that were plaguing American politics,
4:48that were plaguing the American economy.
4:51So progressivism meant the march for greater progress.
4:55[Man] One good example
4:57is the child labor reform movement,
5:00where a lot of people--
5:01a lot of women, especially, and social reformers--
5:04got very excited about young children working in factories.
5:07in this period, often,
5:108-, 10-year-olds worked in factories,
5:13sometimes 10, 12 hours a day.
5:15[Narrator] Flooding into schools,
5:17women demanded medical checkups for students.
5:21In city health departments.
5:22They promoted water purification
5:24and milk inspection.
5:26At departments of labor,
5:28they reported the illegal employment of children in sweatshops,
5:32and at departments of housing,
5:34they noted fire-code and crowding violations.
5:38Joining hands with a new generation
5:40of male reformers,
5:42these progressive women saw themselves as the saviors
5:44of the United States' wretched urban poor.
5:55Often, though, the poor themselves,
5:57especially immigrants,
5:59wanted no part of progressive reform.
6:01Across the nation's cities, for example,
6:04progressives helped plan new parks and playgrounds,
6:07but immigrants and workers
6:09preferred ball fields and sandlots
6:11to the lush, landscaped gardens
6:13that the reformers had created.
6:15At schools, meanwhile, working-class Americans
6:18resented reform
6:19such as mandatory medical inspection of children.
6:23When a young boy came home
6:25with a note complaining about his body odor,
6:27his mother sent her own curt note back--
6:30"Teacher, Johnny ain't no rose.
6:33Learn him. Don't smell him."
6:37Many immigrants also worried that progressive reformers
6:39wanted to destroy their ethnic cultures.
6:43Pushing for trained teachers, improved testing,
6:46and other reforms,
6:47the progressives argued that better schools
6:49would help Americanize
6:51the nation's newest arrivals.
6:54[Woman] In forsaking the land of their birth,
6:56immigrants forsake customs and traditions of that land.
6:59They have an obligation in adopting a new country
7:02to adopt the language and customs of that country.
7:06Julia Richman, 1905.
7:11[Narrator] Nowhere was the clash
7:12between progressives and immigrants greater
7:14than in the question of alcohol.
7:17Since before the civil war,
7:18reformers had tried to rid "demon rum"
7:21from the nation's lips.
7:23In the progressive era, they changed their focus
7:26from the liquor itself
7:27to the place it was consumed--the saloon.
7:31Well, the progressives,
7:33usually from upper-class backgrounds,
7:36many of them women,
7:37thought the saloon was a bad influence on the neighborhood.
7:40They saw children going into the saloons
7:42to get pails of beer.
7:44They saw, sometimes, prostitutes hanging out at the saloons.
7:49They saw men hanging out there and spending their money
7:50when they thought they should be home.
7:53[Woman] People were living in homes
7:54that were crowded, damp, and unsanitary.
7:57The saloon would be warm and inviting.
8:00You could sit around and have camaraderie.
8:02For many ethnic communities,
8:04the saloon was the place
8:05where you got your paycheck cashed.
8:08it was where you found out local news
8:11or news from home,
8:12you found out whether there were jobs available,
8:15you made your connection to the local political party
8:17so you could have some leverage in elections,
8:22and just the sort of basic, neighborhood hangout.
8:32[Man] Time and time again,
8:34in private and in public,
8:36leaders have said they are out for themselves and their own--
8:40not for the public, but for me and my friends--
8:44not for New York, but for Tammany.
8:48[Narrator] Lincoln Steffens was one of the muckrakers--
8:50the journalists who exposed the waste and greed
8:53of the modern United States.
8:55One of the famous investigations
8:58was on the U.S. Senate
9:00called "The Treason of the Senate,"
9:03and the point here was that the senators
9:06were so tied to the economic powers
9:10that put them in office that they were treasonous
9:14to the interest of the United States
9:16and to the people of the United States.
9:18This article so enraged President Theodore Roosevelt
9:21that he gave a speech saying
9:23that these journalists are just going around raking muck
9:27just for muck's sake,
9:30and that's where the term muckraker comes from.
9:32[Narrator] Their investigations began in the slums
9:34and led upwards to urban political bosses
9:38like New York's George Washington Plunkitt.
9:41Bosses took bribes for city construction contracts
9:45or simply awarded them to their friends.
9:48Advance knowledge of a new project
9:50could be worth millions.
9:54Bosses also provided valuable services to immigrants.
9:57When they first arrived in the city,
9:59it was the boss who helped them obtain housing.
10:03In the winter, the boss provided coal.
10:05On Thanksgiving, he warmed hearts with a turkey.
10:09In return, all the newcomer had to do
10:11was vote for the boss and his party.
10:15Later, if he was especially loyal,
10:17the boss might give him a job
10:19in the police or fire department.
10:23They served their neighbors.
10:25In return, the neighbors voted for them.
10:27But the progressives got angry at the bosses,
10:29thinking that they were corrupt,
10:32thinking that they took money unfairly,
10:35so they had many campaigns
10:37to try to defeat the bosses
10:39and put in a more democratic system.
10:42In general, they failed.
10:43The bosses were so strong in most places
10:46that progressives failed to oust them,
10:49but it led to attempts to reform the city
10:53and, in many cases, to pass state laws
10:56about how elections should be handled and so forth.
10:59[Narrator] To free voters from boss control,
11:02progressives introduced the secret ballot.
11:05Voting had traditionally taken place in public,
11:08so the boss knew how you voted.
11:11That way he knew whom to reward and whom to punish.
11:14Under the new system, he could never tell.
11:18Reformers also won new voter registration laws
11:21to prevent bosses from stuffing ballot boxes
11:24with invented names
11:26or paying people to vote multiple times.
11:29And reformers won stronger civil service laws,
11:33requiring cities to award police, fire, and teaching jobs
11:36according to merit.
11:39No longer could the boss simply hire his supporters.
11:43Job seekers would now be screened by tests
11:46to measure how well they would perform.
11:57[Man] Mr. Vanderbilt, sir,
11:59does your railroad serve the public interest?
12:01[Vanderbilt] The public be damned.
12:03Of course we like to do everything possible for the benefit of humanity,
12:06but first, we see that we are benefiting ourselves.
12:12[Narrator] With as much passion
12:13as they fought urban bosses,
12:15muckrakers also attacked the nation's great corporations,
12:19or trusts.
12:20[Nell Irvin Painter] Now, if you have a trust--
12:23a large business working in one sector of the economy--
12:27and if you control enough of that economy,
12:30then you can raise prices.
12:32This is why people wanted to bust trusts--
12:36because prices were going up.
12:38One way to do that was to break up big companies.
12:46[Narrator] Ida Tarbell's exposé of the Standard Oil Company
12:46showed how its president, John D. Rockefeller,
12:48gobbled up smaller companies.
12:51Other muckrakers focused on the companies' mistreatment of workers,
12:55especially children.
12:57[Man] Crouched over the chutes,
12:58the boys sit hour after hour.
13:00Most of them become deformed
13:02and bent-backed like old men.
13:04Cut, broken or crushed fingers are common.
13:07sometimes, there's a worse accident.
13:09A terrific shriek is heard
13:11and a boy is mangled and torn in the machinery
13:14or disappears in the chute to be picked out later,
13:16smothered and dead.
13:19John Spargo, 1906.
13:22[Narrator] Upton Sinclair published a novel called "The Jungle."
13:26Set in the gritty meat-packing yards of Chicago,
13:29it exposed the gruesome filth
13:31within one of the United States'
13:33fastest-growing industries.
13:35"Meat was on the floor in the dirt and sawdust
13:38"Where workers had tramped and spit.
13:41"Thousands of rats raced about.
13:44"Packers would put poisoned bread out for them,
13:46"And then rats, bread, meat
13:49would go into the hoppers together."
13:53[Narrator] Like urban bosses, the reformers said,
13:55these companies put private profit over public good.
14:00In the late 19th and early 20th century,
14:02large numbers of workers were not unionized,
14:04did not have representation,
14:06could not bargain with their employers.
14:09If they were in a workspace that was dangerous
14:12and they went to their boss and they said,
14:14"I'm worried about this staircase
14:16"because every time I go up and down the staircase,
14:19"This stair waggles,
14:20and I'm afraid I'll fall and break my head,"
14:23and the employer could just say, "Bye. You're fired."
14:28And if something happened--
14:30say that worker decided to keep the job,
14:32to go up and down the staircase,
14:34and one day, the stair broke,
14:36the worker fell and broke an arm, couldn't work.
14:40What do they get? Nothing.
14:42So one progressive reform, if you will,
14:45was workers' compensation,
14:48and workers' compensation means that a worker
14:51will get some money
14:52either from the state or from the corporation if injured.
14:57[Narrator] Unable to make businesses
14:59treat their workers with greater fairness,
15:01progressives turned to state and local governments.
15:05They won new laws to regulate what railroads
15:08and other big companies could charge.
15:11They placed restrictions on lobbying
15:13and campaign donations by corporations,
15:15which had often bribed state legislators.
15:19But what if a trust did business
15:21in many states?
15:23Companies like Standard Oil
15:25had operations all over the country.
15:28To control these gigantic industries,
15:31progressives had to turn to the federal government.
15:35In the White House, they found a supporter
15:38in the youngest man
15:39to ever occupy the nation's highest office.
15:42An asthmatic child, frail and sickly,
15:45Theodore Roosevelt developed into an avid writer,
15:48a skilled hunter,
15:50and a symbol of everything that was manly
15:52about the United States.
15:55Whether leading Rough Riders
15:57up San Juan Hill in the Spanish-American War
16:00or leading his presidential cabinet
16:02on trail rides through Rock Creek Park,
16:04Teddy Roosevelt cut a figure
16:06that was literally larger than life.
16:10[Man] He wore a tall black hat
16:11and he strode along with the physical power of a landslide.
16:15Never before or since have i been so much impressed
16:18by physical impact of a human being.
16:21--Hutchins Hapgood.
16:23[Narrator] As president,
16:25Roosevelt boasted that he would bust America's trusts
16:28just like he had killed Spaniards during the war.
16:32But Teddy's trust-busting was more talk than action.
16:36Instead of dividing trusts into smaller companies,
16:40Roosevelt tried to regulate them.
16:44To address the meat-packing horrors that Upton Sinclair described,
16:47Roosevelt signed the Meat Inspection Act,
16:50which required refrigeration and other health precautions.
16:55To control the sale of harmful patent medicines,
16:58He backed the Pure Food & Drug Act,
17:01which banned false labeling on packages.
17:04And to conserve the nation's dwindling forests,
17:07Roosevelt placed millions of acres under federal management.
17:12But who, exactly, would administer these new laws
17:15and protect the public's interests?
17:17In case after case, the answer was the same--
17:20a federal agency or department.
17:23The Meat Inspection Act authorized a branch
17:25of the U.S. Department of Agriculture
17:28to examine meat packing.
17:30The Pure Food & Drug Act created the Food and Drug Administration
17:34to approve new drugs for sale.
17:38The new national forests were administered by a Bureau of Forestry,
17:42which would evolve into the United States Forest Service.
17:46[Man] Governors of the several states and gentlemen,
17:50the occasion for this meeting lies in the fact
17:53that the natural resources of our country
17:55are in danger of exhaustion
17:58if we permit the old, wasteful methods of exploiting them longer, to continue.
18:03As a people, we have a right and duty
18:05to protect ourselves and our children
18:08against the wasteful development of our natural resources.
18:11President Theodore Roosevelt,
18:14National Conservation Congress, 1908.
18:19[Narrator] Fighting big business,
18:20progressivism helped create big government
18:23and cemented the marriage between them both.
18:26The federal government had largely been responsible
18:29for taxes on imports and exports
18:31and for having an army.
18:35It had not been responsible for making sure
18:37that if people got hurt on the job,
18:40that they could get some kind of care.
18:42It had not been responsible for making sure that food was safe to eat.
18:46That was a national-level reform.
18:49These were new ideas,
18:51that the government should be involved in those issues.
18:56[Narrator] The progressives also turned
18:58to the federal government
18:59to manage the nation's diminishing share
19:01of natural resources.
19:03By 1900, the government had sold or given away
19:07most publicly owned lands in the western part of the country.
19:11Claiming to speak for the larger interests
19:13of society and future generations,
19:17Roosevelt added more than 100 million acres
19:19to the national forest system
19:22and prosecuted hundreds of violators
19:24of public land laws,
19:26recovering millions of acres,
19:27which were placed under federal management.
19:31Roosevelt's objective was to conserve national resources
19:34for future use.
19:43Theodore Roosevelt's hand-picked successor
19:45in the White House, William Howard Taft,
19:47broke up more trusts than trustbusting Teddy.
19:52Roosevelt was outraged.
19:54Trusts, he believed, were here to stay.
19:57The president's job
19:58was to make them fairer, not smaller.
20:01So in 1911, Roosevelt announced his bid
20:04to recapture the presidency.
20:06Since Taft had a lock-hold
20:08on Roosevelt's old republican party,
20:11Teddy ran under a new banner--
20:13the progressive party.
20:15[Roosevelt] No effort should be made
20:16to destroy a big corporation
20:18merely because it is big,
20:21but all business should be carefully supervised,
20:24regulated, and controlled by governmental authority.
20:27[Narrator] Although it was a three-way election,
20:30the real race was between Theodore Roosevelt
20:32and the democratic candidate Woodrow Wilson,
20:36the reform governor of New Jersey.
20:39A former college professor,
20:40Wilson seemed cold and distant
20:43to most people who met him.
20:45[Man] His handshake felt like
20:47a 10-cent pickled mackerel in brown paper--
20:49irresponsive and lifeless.
20:51He is a spare, ascetic, repressed creature,
20:54a kind of frozen flame of righteous intelligence.
20:57William Allen White, 1912.
21:01[Narrator] In his 1912 campaign,
21:03Wilson proposed not merely to regulate the trusts,
21:07but to rid the country of them, once and for all.
21:10[Wilson] Mr. Roosevelt did not anywhere condemn the great corporations.
21:15All that is proposed to do is to take them under control and regulation.
21:20Shall we try to get the grip of monopoly away from our lives, or shall we not?
21:26Shall we say monopoly is inevitable, that all we can do is to regulate it?
21:32Then there is no hope for the people of the United States.
21:36[Narrator] Calling his platform "the New Freedom,"
21:38Wilson promised to free the United States from the trusts
21:42and restore an economy of small shops and factories.
21:46Roosevelt, Wilson's opponent, called his program "the New Nationalism,"
21:51since it accepted large corporations
21:53but tried to make them work in the national interest.
21:57So the 1912 presidential election offered Americans
22:00two very different visions of their country.
22:04They voted for the man who promised to bring back
22:06the world of small business-- the corner grocer, not the giant corporation.
22:13Woodrow Wilson proved to be a very effective president,
22:16but he never did deliver on his promise to bust the trusts.
22:21He did win passage of the Clayton Anti-Trust Act,
22:25which limited the size of trusts,
22:27but he also signed into law the Federal Reserve Act,
22:30which created a national banking system.
22:33Rather than breaking up big banks,
22:35the new federal reserve system linked them into a centrally-controlled
22:39network of unprecedented size and power.
22:48[Man] Any passerby can enter and use public lavatories in government buildings,
22:51while citizens of color who do the work of the government are excluded.
22:57As equal citizens, we are entitled to freedom from discrimination.
23:02Have you "a New Freedom" for white Americans
23:04and a new slavery for Afro-American fellow citizens?
23:07God forbid!
23:10William Monroe Trotter, 1914.
23:12[Narrator] The same man who declared "a New Freedom" for the United States
23:17ordered the segregation of Black Americans in federal buildings.
23:22Back in 1896, the Supreme Court had upheld the "separate but equal" laws of the American South
23:28in a case called Plessy vs. Ferguson.
23:31In the years that followed, racial segregation hardened throughout the South.
23:36Across the nation, the signs of segregation appeared over hotels,
23:41theaters, and water fountains.
23:43Worst of all, this era also witnessed a new,
23:46vicious outbreak of violence against Black Americans.
23:51Between 1885 and 1907,
23:53more Americans were lynched in the United States than legally executed.
23:59The vast majority of the victims were black.
24:03One of the underlying issues that made racism
24:07violent and dangerous
24:09in the early 20th century was that
24:11most black people were powerless.
24:14So in the early 20th century,
24:16even though there was a great migration
24:19of black southerners into the north and into the east,
24:22about 90% of black people still lived in the South.
24:26In the South, almost none could vote.
24:30They lived in a situation of segregation,
24:34which meant separation,
24:37but it also meant separate and terribly unequal.
24:43As segregation and violence spread,
24:45Black Americans began a sharp debate about how they should respond.
24:50On one side, stood Booker T. Washington, president of Tuskegee Institute.
24:56On the other stood W.E.B. Du Bois,
24:59a Harvard-educated historian and journalist.
25:03Born in 1856 to slave parents,
25:06Booker T. Washington founded Tuskegee in 1881
25:11to help blacks learn useful trades.
25:14Instead of pushing for immediate equality, Washington said,
25:18blacks should develop vocational skills.
25:22[Man] To those of my race who underestimate the importance
25:26of friendly relations with the southern white man,
25:29I would say, cast down your bucket where you are.
25:34There is as much dignity in tilling a field as in writing a poem.
25:40In all things that are purely social, the races can be separate as the fingers,
25:45Yet one as the hand in all things essential to mutual progress.
25:51--Booker T. Washington.
25:53[Narrator] Where Washington counseled patience and gradual uplift
25:57through hard work and black self-help,
25:59W.E.B. Du Bois demanded immediate and equal rights
26:03for African Americans in schools, housing, and employment.
26:08[Man] Mr. Washington insists on thrift and self-respect,
26:12but at the same time counsels silent submission to civic inferiority.
26:17Is it possible that nine million men can make progress in economic lines
26:22if they are deprived of political rights?
26:26By every peaceful method, we must strive for the rights
26:29which the sons of the fathers would fain forget--
26:33"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal."
26:38W.E.B. Du Bois, 1903.
26:44[Narrator] Other Americans lost their rights
26:46because of the content of their opinions
26:49rather than the color of their skins.
26:52One major target of persecution were the Socialists
26:55who believed that American workers,
26:58not their bosses should own the nation's industries.
27:03Socialist Party candidates won offices
27:06in over 300 cities,
27:08including Milwaukee and San Fransisco.
27:10In the 1912 presidential election,
27:13socialist candidate Eugene Debs won almost
27:15a million votes.
27:18To Debs, the Wilson-Roosevelt dispute over the size of American corporations
27:22made no sense.
27:24All that mattered was who owned them.
27:27[Eugene Debs] The republican, democratic, and progressive parties all stand for
27:31private ownership of the productive machinery used by workers.
27:35The Socialist Party is the one party which stands squarely for the abolition
27:40of industrial slavery.
27:42Eugene Victor Debs, 1912.
27:45[Narrator] This message struck fear into the hearts of the nations law enforcement
27:50authorities, who tried to silence the socialists by jailing them.
27:55Debs himself will be arrested and sentenced to federal prison for opposing
27:59the United States entry into World War I.
28:05Another group persecuted because of their opinions were
28:08the Industrial Workers of the World, or Wobblies.
28:12Like the Socialists,
28:14the Wobblies thought that the laborers, not corporate kingpins
28:18should own the nations factories.
28:20But where Socialists preferred to work through the polls,
28:23the I.W.W. called for strikes and sabotage against big businesses.
28:30So businessmen organized groups of vigilantes to harass and intimidate Wobblies.
28:35Wobblies were beaten, branded,
28:37and forced to kiss the American flag on their knees.
28:41Some were even shot and killed.
28:44Like Eugene Debs,
28:46hundreds of Wobblies would be hauled off to prison
28:49during the First World War.
28:56Back before the turn of the century,
28:58Jane Addams and her settlement house movement
29:00helped usher in the era of progressive reform.
29:04Suffragists, like Carrie Chapman Catt,
29:06would help bring the era to a close
29:09by finally winning women's right to vote.
29:12The suffragists argued for the ballot as a way to ensure the progressive triumph.
29:17If women had the vote, they claimed, the bosses would fall.
29:21Saloons would disappear, and the United States of America
29:24would be an altogether better place.
29:27[Jane Addams] Public spirited women who wish to use the ballot
29:30do not wish to do the work of men.
29:32They simply want an opportunity to do their own work
29:35and to take care of those affairs which naturally,
29:38and historically, belong to women.
29:40May we not fairly say that American women need the vote in order to preserve the home?
29:46Jane Addams, 1910.
29:48[Narrator] Yet, suffragists also embraced the dark underside of progressivism:
29:53racial and ethnic bigotry.
29:55Many women argued for the vote in racist terms,
29:59promising that the female ballot
30:01would help keep white protestants in charge.
30:04[Olivia Brown] There are three times as many American-born women
30:08as the whole foreign population.
30:10So the votes of women will be the only means of overcoming
30:14this foreign influence and maintaining our free institutions.
30:19We are in danger of Catholic domination.
30:22There is no possible safety unless women are given the suffrage.
30:27Olivia Brown, 1889.
30:30[Belle Kearney] Of all the women in the South who can read and write,
30:33ten out of every eleven are white.
30:35The enfranchisement of women would ensure immediate,
30:38and durable white supremacy.
30:41Belle Kearney, 1903.
30:46[Narrator] Racial prejudices also helped push through a new constitutional
30:51amendment to ban the sell of alcohol.
30:53Prohibition swept the South
30:55when false rumors of drunken, rampaging blacks
30:58enveloped the region.
31:04The countries entrance into the First World War in 1917
31:08pushed prohibition over the top.
31:11The grain used to make alcohol was needed for the war effort
31:15and drinking was becoming, not merely unwise but un-American,
31:20since the German enemy consumed alcohol.
31:25World War I would spell the end of progressive reform.
31:29Trust-busting came to a complete halt as corporations formed huge cartels
31:35to arm and equipped the nations soldiers.
31:38The war also brought a new cycle of prejudice and violence against minorities
31:43as race riots flared across U.S. cities
31:46and thousands of immigrants were arrested or deported.
31:51The progressives still had unanswered questions.
31:55How would the United States regulate its enormous industrial corporations?
32:00How would it integrate its diverse racial and ethnic groups?
32:06How would it fulfill the democratic ideals
32:09upon which the nation was founded?
32:13Since the American Revolution,
32:15waves of reformers had called upon the nation
32:18to renew these ideals.
32:21Before the Civil War,
32:22they fought to eliminate slavery, drunkenness, and poverty.
32:27The progressives picked up this reform spirit,
32:30which would reappear during the 1930s, and again in the 1960s.
32:36Behind all of these movements
32:38lay the distinctive American faith that
32:41"We can remake the world."
32:49♪

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