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Las grandes potencias se disputan Iberia (Memoria de España 3/26) — Transcript

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0:46After the disappearance of Tartessos at
0:48the end of the 6th century BC, other
0:50peoples inhabiting the Iberian
0:52Peninsula began to shape its history.
0:56Many are virtually unknown to Spaniards
0:58today, except in a few localities of
0:59their remote origin. And yet, within
1:04them lie many of the characteristics
1:06that have marked the way of life of the
1:08inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula
1:10and built its unique history. The
1:25native Iberians, rooted in their
1:26customs, resisted the invading powers
1:28of Carthage and Rome for hundreds of
1:30years, which would transform their
1:32lives. And in that resistance, great
1:42deeds were forged, resounding events
1:44whose echoes have been passed down by
1:46teachers 'voices to the ears of many
1:48generations of children. Saguntum,
1:52Numantia, Viriathus, heroism and
1:55bravery, tragedy and blood. But beyond
2:02the milestones, history attempts to
2:04find the right path through the
2:06labyrinth of the pre-Hispanic world,
2:08full of enigmas, different paths, and
2:10peoples intersecting in Iberia.
2:13Turdetani, Bastetani, Oretani,
2:16Carpetani.
2:18The name that Greek merchants gave to
2:20the entire peninsular territory was
2:22based on the way they referred to one
2:24of its rivers, Iber, the Ebro.
2:31Classical historians, geographers, and
2:33writers recount the characteristics of
2:36these pre-Hispanic peoples before their
2:38conquest. The Greek Strabo, in the
2:52service of Rome, describes the entire
2:54known world of the time in 17 books to
2:57provide rulers with the geographic
2:59knowledge, both natural and human,
3:02necessary to direct administration and
3:04war. When speaking of the Iberian
3:11peoples, he focuses his gaze based on
3:13their receptivity to the Greco-Latin
3:15civilization that the invading power
3:17wishes to impose.
3:19The inhabitants of the north are
3:21possessed by a hardness and beastly
3:23rage and are fond of brushing their
3:25teeth with urine. While the Turdetani,
3:33heirs of the Tartessians, have gentle
3:36and cultured customs. They are reputed
3:40to be the most cultured among the
3:42Iberians. They possess grammar and
3:44writings of ancient memory, poems, and
3:47laws in verse that they claim are 6,000
3:49years old. The Iberian language, though
4:01with distinct dialects, unified
4:03different peoples who lived between the
4:056th and 2nd centuries BC, from Upper
4:07Andalusia to the south of France. They
4:12developed their writing, which consists
4:14of 28 alphabetic and syllabic signs of
4:17Phoenician and Greek origin, which,
4:19despite research, we can still read but
4:21not yet interpret. The signs are
4:29frequent in accounting documents made
4:31on lead tablets or on pottery. An open
4:42Mediterranean culture in Catalonia, the
4:44Ebro Valley, Valencia, the southeast,
4:47and Upper and Lower Andalusia. Cities
4:50are built, settlements appear,
4:52beautiful sculptures are made, potter's
4:54wheels are used, and the use of iron
4:56becomes widespread. Villages,
5:10agricultural settlements, or mining
5:12centers located on hills from which
5:15crops are watched and livestock
5:17protected, become subordinate to more
5:19important towns built on main
5:21thoroughfares that collect surpluses
5:23and trade them in their markets. An
5:31incipient urbanization process creates
5:34urban centers that become capitals of a
5:36vast territory. Walls serve as
5:39protection, but they also unite and
5:42harmonize the efforts of the entire
5:44community. Urban planning is still
5:56quite simple. There are hardly any
5:58architectural differences between one
6:00space and another. There are no palaces
6:03, theaters, large warehouses, or public
6:05buildings. In the houses, the family
6:18lives together with domestic animals,
6:20which provide an important source of
6:21heat. Everything is produced in the
6:32home itself. Clothing, footwear,
6:35furniture, tools. Society is stratified
6:58. At the top, the landowners who strive
7:01to accumulate more and more land. Below
7:04them, other more modest landowners,
7:06merchants, and artisans. And finally
7:12the disinherited, laborers who work
7:14under the orders of foremen in the
7:16fields or in the mines, and some slaves
7:18taken as spoils of war. Very
7:26occasionally, the settlers find their
7:28daily lives altered by the arrival of
7:30vendors, peddlers, and artisans who
7:32exchange their precious goods.
7:51Agriculture and livestock are the
7:52economic base of Iberian society. Olive
7:56trees, vines, fruit trees, vegetables,
7:58and cereals dot the Mediterranean
8:00landscape in which they live. Honey,
8:08besides serving as an excellent
8:10preservative, is a delicacy for the
8:13Iberian palate and a valuable trade and
8:16exchange good. The greatest enemy for
8:22Iberian farmers is the rabbit, a
8:24species that aroused the curiosity of
8:26the Greeks upon arriving in the Iberian
8:28Peninsula, as it was unknown to them.
8:31Strabo, in his Geography, points out
8:34that rabbits constitute a true plague.
8:37Harmful animals are rare, with the
8:39exception of some little hares that
8:42bore into the ground and are called by
8:44some "leverides." As they feed on roots
8:48, they destroy plants. They are
8:51impossible animals to combat given
8:53their multitude. In many places, there
9:01is also significant mineral wealth.
9:04Strabo's texts record ancient accounts
9:06stating that in Baetica, corresponding
9:08to present-day Andalusia, there was
9:11more gold, silver, and iron than in the
9:13rest of the world. Nature is also a
9:21place of worship and adoration for the
9:24Iberians. Sanctuaries are located in
9:27privileged places where geography shows
9:29its magnificence, where the environment
9:31puts man into perspective and shelters
9:33the longings for supernatural powers.
9:38Forests, caves, and promontories hold
9:40desires for well-being, health, and
9:42immortality. The Iberians placed
9:48figurines and votive offerings in those
9:50enclaves, sometimes just fragments.
9:53Small sculptures representing a damaged
9:55leg, an injured hand, the face of a
9:58sick person, or a domestic animal
10:00needed to till the land. At other times
10:04, the representation of the human
10:06figure is abstracted or schematized to
10:08ask for good fortune, fertility, or
10:10offspring. Death is solemnized with
10:19great commemorative monuments. For
10:27historical research, the discovery of
10:29ancient burial sites is of great
10:31importance, for in the absence of
10:32understanding their writing, much of
10:34the knowledge possessed comes from the
10:36grave goods that testify to their
10:38customs in life and allow for the
10:40reconstruction of parts of their
10:42history. Art perpetuates the ideology
10:54of petty kings, princes, or chiefs who
10:57claim the design of the gods for
10:59themselves. The dead aristocrat is
11:35dressed in his finest attire for his
11:37passage to the feared afterlife. He is
11:41buried in the company of his weapons.
11:43As many spears are driven into the
11:45ground as there were enemies killed on
11:46the battlefield. Sculpted
11:50representations of mythological and
11:52real animals—sphinxes and lions,
11:54horses and wolves, griffins and bulls
11:56—extol the hero's valor. He. Perfumes
13:15are poured and aromatic herbs are
13:17burned. Offerings of wine and a banquet
13:21honor the deceased. Eggs and pine cones
13:25are placed next to him, taking on a
13:27symbolic character of permanence to
13:29soothe the spirit of the deceased in
13:31the world of the dead, preventing a
13:34restless wandering in a hypothetical
13:36return to that of the living. Death is
14:43transformed into a daydream, and the
14:49artisans are inspired by reality to
14:51idealize it. And from the carvings
14:54emerge fascinating ladies, women before
14:56whom one can only offer adoration,
14:58mother goddesses who unearth Iberian
15:01expressions and feelings to make them
15:03immortal in time. Iberia is recognized
15:14in its ladies. One of them, the Lady of
15:19Elche, becomes the emblem of the
15:21greatness of this pre-Hispanic culture.
15:25Its origin is dated between the fourth
15:27and third centuries B.C. Discovered in
15:371897 by Manuel Campello, a few days
15:39later the sculpture was sold to the
15:41French Hispanist Pierre Paris.
15:57Recovered for Spain in the middle of
15:58the world war in 1942, by an agreement
16:00between the Franco government and that
16:03of Marshal Pétain, it was housed for
16:04years in the Prado Museum before being
16:07moved to the National Archaeological
16:08Museum. With chauvinistic waves calmed
16:14and its identity recovered, the Lady of
16:17Elche, of which only the bust remains,
16:19seems to have been part of a funerary
16:21monument that held the ashes of the
16:24deceased. Admired for the perfection of
16:28its features and its primitive beauty
16:31by artists like Picasso, the Lady of
16:33Elche elevates the history of the
16:35ancient Iberians, capable of expressing
16:37their deepest emotions through art.
17:01Over the centuries, small Indo-European
17:03family groups arrive in the northern
17:05peninsula in search of new fields to
17:07farm or better pastures. for livestock.
17:19On their journey to their final
17:21settlements, they mix with other native
17:23populations, exchanging ideas and
17:25adapting their character to new ways of
17:28life. Settling in the north of the
17:38peninsula between the 10th and 6th
17:41centuries BC in Cantabria, Asturias,
17:43and Galicia, these pre-Celtic
17:45populations develop a culture that
17:47lasts for hundreds of years, remaining
17:49until the 1st century, when it adopts
17:51some traits induced by Rome. This is
17:55what is known as the Castro culture.
18:09The Gallaeci who inhabit the northwest
18:11peninsula, as well as the Astures and
18:13Cantabri in the north, share similar
18:15traditions. The hillforts, or castros,
18:18usually house one or two hundred
18:20inhabitants. The land is owned by the
18:23community, but agricultural yields are
18:25scarce and exchanges between
18:27populations are not very frequent.
18:30Solidarity among members of the group
18:33itself ensures survival. Only weapons,
18:38some household items, farming tools,
18:40ornaments, and jewelry can belong to
18:42the individual or private sphere. But
18:47despite a certain egalitarianism, it
18:49has been shown that northern societies
18:52are hierarchical, and not all community
18:54members have the same social or
18:56economic status as others. These
19:04northern peoples will fiercely resist
19:06the Roman conquest. Perhaps this is why
19:10Strabo reflects them with a certain
19:12bitterness in his work. They eat while
19:21sitting on benches built around the
19:23walls, lining up on them according to
19:26their age and rank. Food is passed from
19:31hand to hand. While drinking, the men
19:36dance to the sound of flutes and
19:38trumpets, jumping high and landing in a
19:40genuflection. Their rudeness and
19:51savagery are not only due to their
19:53warlike customs, but also to their
19:55isolation, as the land and sea routes
19:57leading to these lands are long, and
19:59this difficulty of communication has
20:02made them lose all sociability and
20:04humanity. They live with great
20:11austerity, eat only one meal a day, and
20:13sleep on straw mattresses. They live
20:16without worries because they let their
20:18lives pass with no desire for anything
20:20beyond the essential. They live in a
20:24gynecocracy under the rule of women, a
20:26regime that is not very civilized.
20:51Gynecocracy consists of the fact that,
20:54unlike other patriarchal societies, the
20:56woman not only plays an important role,
20:59as in other civilizations, but this
21:01role is also socially recognized. The
21:13northern woman achieves great
21:15independence in her relationships with
21:17men. They are the heirs to the property
21:20. When they marry, they receive a dowry
21:22as a token of the high esteem in which
21:24they are held. Their freedom does not
21:27exempt them from performing a large
21:29amount of daily labor. They till the
21:32land, perform the harvesting, handle
21:35household chores, care for the children
21:38, look after domestic animals, and from
21:41time to time, sift and dredge the river
21:43waters in search of gold. In nature
21:58lies the everyday, but religion is also
22:01found there. Nature unites the sacred
22:04and the profane, the venerable and
22:06intangible with the real. Some
22:12Greco-Roman historians consider the
22:14Gallaeci to be atheists. They do not
22:17understand that religion can exist
22:18without a physical representation of
22:20their gods. The Gallaeci have no need
22:25for it because the gods are immersed in
22:27the forests, in the mysteries of the
22:28plants, in the secret of the paths.
22:41Leangosinor
22:45lacking a written language. The word of
22:47the elders extends the footprint of
22:49memory with their voice, and the ears
22:52of the children and the youth store the
22:54history and embrace the tradition. A
23:18council of elders occupies the social
23:21peak in Cantabria. As men grow old and
23:24see that their physical strength has
23:26diminished and they can no longer fight
23:28, they prefer to commit suicide rather
23:30than become a heavy burden to the
23:31family. In the western part of the
23:50peninsula, the Lusitanians occupy the
23:52territory between the Douro and the
23:53Guadiana rivers. They speak an old
24:00language derived from Indo-European
24:02that predates Celtic. With the wars
24:14against the Romans, one of the
24:16Lusitanian leaders, Viriathus, as early
24:18as the second century BC, achieves
24:20renowned fame and becomes the prototype
24:23of the qualities of a mythical and
24:25independent hero. The Lusitanians
24:31depend on a difficult agricultural and
24:33livestock economy. The transition from
24:36adolescence to military age is carried
24:38out through initiation rites in which
24:40the youth must prove their courage.
24:44Thus, grouped in brotherhoods of peers,
24:46they launch themselves into the
24:48plundering of other peoples. These
24:52customs, maintained until the Roman era
24:54, are what gave the Lusitanians their
24:56fame as a warlike people, as if war
24:59were an endemic evil, when in reality
25:01it was a cultural strategy to alleviate
25:03scarcity. In the 5th century BC, the
25:10so-called La Tène culture marks a very
25:12characteristic phase of the Celtic
25:14world. This current reaches the Iberian
25:17Peninsula. The process of Celticization
25:22is complex and long, and occurs
25:24gradually over many years. Due to the
25:30dynamics of their own evolution,
25:32separated from their origins, the
25:34Hispanic Celts fragment and generate
25:36disparate experiences. Some maintain
25:40more genuine traits from a linguistic
25:42and material culture perspective.
25:44Others, however, in symbiosis with
25:47native populations, give rise to their
25:49own culture, the Celtiberian. The
25:55Celtiberians settle between the middle
25:57Ebro, the Iberian System, and the upper
25:59Duero. They are a group of peoples—
26:03Pelendones, Titti, Belli, Lusones,
26:05Arevaci—who speak their own
26:07Celtiberian language, of Indo-European
26:10origin, and who write by adopting and
26:12using the Iberian writing system.
26:17Throughout the third and second
26:19centuries BC, urban centers in
26:21Celtiberia develop, transforming into
26:24true walled cities. Writing is used,
26:29and under the influence of the great
26:31powers, currency is minted. The
26:34accumulation of wealth in the hands of
26:37a few and the resulting great
26:39inequalities lead the poorest to enlist
26:41as professional soldiers to secure
26:43their livelihood. The Turdetanian
26:48leaders of the southern peninsula,
26:50among others, recruit them to confront
26:52both bandits and revolts arising in
26:54protest of social inequalities in the
26:57territory. They are cruel in their
27:16customs toward wrongdoers and enemies,
27:18but honorable and humane toward
27:20foreigners. Those who arrive before
27:24them are invited to stay in their homes
27:26; they vie among themselves for the
27:29honor of hospitality, and they approve
27:31of anyone who assists foreigners,
27:33considering them beloved by the gods.
27:38Fierce, bold, brave, and loyal to their
27:41patrons, the soldiers leave their dead
27:43on the battlefield in the open air so
27:46that vultures, after devouring them,
27:48may carry their valiant spirits to the
27:51sky, where the other half of life
27:53awaits them. Meanwhile, common beings,
27:57far removed from such bloody deeds, are
27:59cremated when they die. The Vaccaei,
28:09neighbors of the Celtiberians and also
28:11of Celtic roots, dedicate themselves to
28:14intensive agriculture and supply
28:15Celtiberian settlements or cities like
28:18Numantia. For the Vaccaei, just as for
28:22the northern peoples, the land belongs
28:25to the collective. Its fruits and
28:27harvests are stored in silos, and each
28:29member of the community takes what they
28:32need. In the territory of the current
28:39provinces of Ávila, Salamanca, and
28:41Zamora, the Vettones, also of
28:43Indo-European Celtic origin, overcome
28:45geographical difficulties to tend and
28:47protect their herds. Livestock farming
28:52is everything to them, and their way of
28:54life is idealized and represented.
29:00Vettonia is the land of the*verracos*(
29:02boar statues), and in them, these
29:04docile animals transcend their fate and
29:06become the symbol of a culture. At the
29:16head of Vetton society stands a warrior
29:18minority that possesses excellent
29:19horses and weapons. The horse is a
29:25fundamental animal for the Vettones in
29:27the landscape where their lives unfold.
29:30Their possession, one of their most
29:32prized assets. Buried in the funerary
29:37equipment of the privileged classes,
29:39the bits and harnesses of their horses
29:41stand out. Ah! Not all peninsular
30:03regions were affected by the
30:04Indo-European and Celtic suns. Rugged
30:08areas and hard-to-reach valleys
30:10provided shelter to settlers who
30:12maintained their traditional traits,
30:14apart from the changes brought by those
30:16gradually penetrating the peninsula.
30:20This explains the persistence of
30:22pre-Indo-European languages and unique
30:24cultural formations. These were peoples
30:31with a predominantly pastoral economy,
30:34possessing ancient languages, of which
30:36at least one has survived to this day:
30:38Basque. The Vascones occupied
30:50present-day Navarre and part of Aragon,
30:52while in what now constitutes Basque
30:54territory, the Varduli, Caristii,
30:56Autrigones, and Berones settled. The
31:02border zones of their territory
31:04received Celtiberian influences.
31:08Scarcely Romanized, though they would
31:10support Rome in its advance to the
31:12north, they later received from the
31:14conquering metropolis, in gratitude,
31:16the consolidation of their territory
31:18and a certain independence. Many of the
31:28peoples who led the transition from the
31:31Bronze Age to the Iron Age in Iberia
31:33maintained contact and exchanges with
31:35each other. which continued well into
31:38the Roman era. The Tabula Contrebiensis
31:43, on display at the Zaragoza Museum and
31:46dated May 17th, 87 B.C., was made to
31:49settle a dispute over water pipes
31:51between the Iberian city of Salduie,
31:54Zaragoza, and the Vascon city of
31:56Alauona, Aragon. The problem was
31:59resolved in the Celtiberian city of
32:01Contrebia Belaisca, Botorrita in
32:03Zaragoza. The potential wealth of
32:12pre-Hispanic peoples is also, alongside
32:14the origin of their prosperity, the
32:17seed of their suffering. Starting in
32:23the third century B.C., the powerful
32:25empires of Carthage and Rome set their
32:28sights on them. The hatred the
32:42Carthaginians and Romans professed for
32:44each other would bathe Iberia in blood.
32:49The Punic Wars, in which Rome and
32:51Carthage fought for political supremacy
32:53for nearly 100 years, turned the
32:55Mediterranean into the stage for a true
32:57world war of the era. Carthage was a
33:11city-state that, following the decline
33:13of the Phoenicians, took advantage of
33:15its inheritance to become a nation with
33:17commercial interests in different parts
33:19of the Mediterranean. Sicily, Sardinia,
33:23African coasts, Iberian Peninsula. On
33:28the Italian peninsula, the Romans from
33:31the Latium region imposed themselves on
33:33the various Italic peoples. Rome
33:36inherited from the Greeks and the
33:38peoples of southern Italy their age-old
33:40confrontation with the Carthaginians,
33:42as both competed for the same economic
33:44spaces. The First Punic War took place
33:50in Sicily for 23 years and ended with
33:52the defeat of Carthage, which lost its
33:54possessions on the island as well as
33:57Corsica and Sardinia to Rome. In the
34:01treaty that ended the conflict, the
34:03Carthaginians pledged to pay a huge
34:06indemnity to Rome every year as war
34:08spoils. Four years after the end of the
34:27First Punic War, in 237 BC, the
34:30Carthaginians landed in Cadiz. Leading
34:34them was one of their most prestigious
34:36generals, Hamilcar, of the Barca family
34:38. With Hamilcar traveled his son,
34:51Hannibal, who was barely 10 years old.
35:04According to classical historical
35:05sources, his father made him swear an
35:08oath of eternal hatred toward the
35:10Romans. Hamilcar wanted to dominate the
35:26Guadalquivir valley and, through it,
35:28reach the mines of the wealthy Castulo.
35:31But many peoples defended their
35:33territory from the Carthaginian
35:35conquerors. Two Iberian leaders,
35:43Istolatius and Indortes, confronted the
35:46powerful Punic army with their warriors
35:48. Istolatius died in the battle.
35:51Indortes was captured and, after being
35:54blinded, was subjected to cruel torture
35:56before being crucified. Hamilcar
36:00applied ruthless repression,
36:02alternating with periods of more
36:03benevolent policy to attract the
36:05natives. He incorporated thousands of
36:09the prisoners taken into his ranks to
36:11strengthen his army. After defeating
36:14the various indigenous peoples, he
36:16headed toward the Levantine coast,
36:18where he founded Acra Leuce, in
36:20present-day Alicante, as an operations
36:22center. Hamilcar undertook a war
36:28campaign against the inland peoples to
36:30consolidate Levantine domains, and in
36:32one of the battles against the Oretani,
36:35he fell mortally wounded. He was
36:56succeeded by the army's acclamation of
36:58his son-in-law Hasdrubal, who defeated
36:59the Oretani and avenged his
37:01predecessor's death. More political
37:04than him, he married an indigenous
37:06princess, earning the friendship of the
37:08ruling classes of the Iberian peoples.
37:13The Iberian aristocracy, eager to
37:15maintain their privileges, accepted the
37:17Carthaginian general's conciliatory
37:19policy and recognized him as the leader
37:21of the Iberians. In one of the most
37:28impressive natural harbors in the
37:29entire Mediterranean, Hasdrubal founded
37:32the city of Qart Hadasht, New Carthage,
37:34with the longing that its reflection
37:36would project Carthage's power in
37:38Iberia. Today, twenty-something
37:44centuries later, every September,
37:46Cartagena remembers its Carthaginian
37:49past with joy and pride. The
37:53festivities dress up in antiquity and
37:55the population commemorates remote
37:58epics beyond time. The city of
38:02Cartagena reached, as early as the 3rd
38:04century BC, 40,000 inhabitants, of whom
38:07more than 2,000 were artisans, sailors,
38:10or specialized workers. From Cartagena,
38:16the Carthaginians control the region's
38:18silver mines, salt works, fish-salting
38:20industries, and esparto grass crops,
38:22and possess an excellent port to house
38:25their fleet and shipyards to expand it.
38:30Hasdrubal punctually pays the
38:32agreed-upon reparations to the Romans
38:34and eases their concern over
38:35Carthaginian advances by signing a
38:37treaty with Rome that sets the Ebro
38:39River as the limit for Carthage's
38:41ambitions in Iberia. But the treaty is
38:46flawed. Some cities like Saguntum,
38:49linked by economic and trade interests
38:52with the Greeks through Marseille, are
38:54left isolated within Carthage's area of
38:56influence. Five years after the signing
39:04of the agreement, Hasdrubal is
39:05mysteriously assassinated in his
39:07quarters by a slave. Hannibal is
39:18proclaimed general of the Carthaginian
39:20armies. His war campaigns provide him
39:23with loot, new tributes from subjugated
39:25populations, soldiers, and slaves for
39:28the hard labor in the mines. Hannibal
39:37feels strong. He can finally complete
39:41the cycle his father began, regain
39:43strength, and avenge the humiliation
39:45his people suffered against the Romans
39:47in the First Punic War. Both powers
39:54anticipate the clash. They only need a
39:58pretext to trigger hostilities. That is
40:02Saguntum. Minor incidents between the
40:06Saguntines and neighboring populations
40:08under Carthaginian rule prompt Hannibal
40:10to conquer the city, which falls within
40:12his sphere under the treaty signed with
40:14the Romans. Rome prefers that Hannibal
40:19carry out his purpose so they can find
40:21the moral excuse to justify confronting
40:23Carthage. The Iberian Saguntum is
40:28sacrificed. After it falls, following
40:33eight months of resistance, Rome
40:35declares war on Carthage. With
40:41hostilities against Rome reopened,
40:43Hannibal begins the feat that will
40:45cement the epic aura history surrounds
40:48him with. With a great army equipped
40:56with elephants, he crosses the Pyrenees
40:59and the Alps, reaching the Italian
41:01peninsula, where he defeats four Roman
41:03armies in three successive battles.
41:19Threatened, Rome assesses the
41:21importance of the Iberian Peninsula to
41:23Carthaginian strategy and
41:25counterattacks. An army led by the
41:29brothers Publius and Gnaeus Cornelius
41:31Scipio lands in Empúries. From then on
41:35, Latin sources call the Iberian lands
41:37Hispania. The Romans present themselves
41:42to the native peoples as liberators
41:43from Carthaginian rule. They find
41:48support from important petty kings and
41:50leaders like Indibil and Mandonius,
41:52chiefs of the Ilergetes, or Edeco, king
41:55of the Edetani. The Hispanic peoples
41:58and leaders, lacking a sense of unity
42:00among themselves, will alternate
42:02between alliances and confrontations
42:03according to their interests. Indibil
42:07and Mandonius will die years later in a
42:09war against the very Romans they now
42:11help. The Scipios advance rapidly to
42:18the south, defeating the Carthaginian
42:20armies and their allies, but they meet
42:22their deaths while attempting to
42:24conquer Urso (Osuna). and Castulo. Two
42:34years later, Publius' son lands in
42:36Hispania. Publius Scipio, the African.
42:40He conquers Cartagena, causing Hannibal
42:43to lose the vital port that supplied
42:45his campaign in Italy. Then the last
42:48Carthaginian strongholds in the
42:50Guadalquivir Valley fall. Publius
43:06Scipio founds Italica in present-day
43:08Seville, the first Roman colony in
43:11Hispania. Its inhabitants are granted
43:14the status of full Roman citizens. The
43:18city of Gadir, with its Punic tradition
43:20, intimidated, makes a pact with the
43:22Romans. The city's Phoenician
43:25aristocracy signs a friendship treaty
43:27with Rome and becomes its ally. With
43:37the Iberian Peninsula lost, Hannibal's
43:40fate is sealed. Scipio lands in Africa.
43:45Hannibal, who had lost sight in one eye
43:47while crossing the Alps, returns from
43:50Italy to defend Carthage. He is
43:52defeated at the Battle of Zama. He
44:10returns to a humiliated Carthage, once
44:13again in debt due to the indemnities it
44:15must pay Rome. He undertakes a series
44:20of reforms that earn him the hostility
44:22of much of the Carthaginian aristocracy
44:24. Rome demands his surrender. Hannibal,
44:31pursued, takes refuge in Syria and
44:33Bithynia, but harassed by the Romans,
44:36he commits suicide before being
44:38captured. The fading of Hannibal's eyes
44:46in the distant reaches of the Middle
44:49East, 55 years after his arrival in
44:51Hispanic lands, stifles his restless
44:53spirit, ignited by his hatred for Rome,
44:56and spares him the anguish of
44:58witnessing the explosion of a new world
45:01order. No. Ah. Oh.

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