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تکامل مغز| تفاوت های مغز مردانه ، مغز زنانه و مغز یک همجنسگرا! — Transcript

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0:00The story of brain evolution continued.
0:04It reached a point where we gained a
0:05very good understanding of the human
0:07brain. We talked about its different
0:10structures, why it looks this way, what
0:12role each structure plays
0:14evolutionarily, and what the
0:15consequences are if a problem arises in
0:18any of those roles. In this episode, we
0:20want to have a very controversial
0:22discussion. We want to talk about the
0:24differences between male and female
0:26brains. From an evolutionary
0:29perspective, meaning we want to mix
0:31neuroscience, psychology, and evolution
0:33all together. We want to see if there
0:35is really a difference between men's
0:37and women's brains or not. For example,
0:39the claim that men are better drivers;
0:41is that really true, or if it is, what
0:43is the reason behind it? Or, you know
0:46how they say when you lose something,
0:48your mom finds it right away; the way
0:50you lose it and then your mom says, "If
0:52I come and find it, I'll skin you alive
0:54!" Do these things really exist? And if
0:57they exist, do they really trace back
0:58to evolution? We are trying to answer
1:00all of this in this episode. We will
1:02also try to answer a very fundamental
1:04question from the perspectives of
1:06psychology, neuroscience, and evolution
1:08: does gender really exist? Some say
1:10gender doesn't exist and being a man or
1:12a woman is a choice. Some say, do we
1:14only have two types of gender? No, for
1:16instance, we have ten types of gender,
1:18a hundred types of gender, and so on.
1:20We want to look at the matter a bit
1:21from the perspectives of evolutionary
1:23psychology and neuroscience to see what
1:24the story is. I am Benyamin Farani, and
1:26this is Biofile. You see, various
1:34studies show different structural
1:36differences between the brains of women
1:38and men. Now, we will discuss the
1:40scenarios regarding what causes these
1:42differences later in the episode. Now,
1:44if we want to point out a few things
1:46based on this figure we are seeing from
1:49Kandel’s Neurology or Neuroscience
1:51book, for example, note that generally,
1:53it can be said that men's brains are
1:55about 10 to 12 percent larger than
1:57women's. Well, you might say this is
1:59because men's bodies are generally
2:01larger than women's; no, this 10 to 12
2:04percent is after adjusting for height
2:06and body size ratios. Apart from this,
2:08other differences can generally be
2:10found in structures statistically; for
2:12example, the corpus callosum in women
2:14is usually somewhat larger, the part of
2:15the brain that enables communication
2:17between the two hemispheres. For
2:19instance, this saying that
2:20communication between the two
2:21hemispheres in women is better than in
2:23men, its origin might lie in this.
2:25According to studies and observations,
2:27the hippocampus is larger in women
2:29compared to men, which is somewhat
2:31related to memory and emotional
2:33processing; or, for example, the
2:35amygdala, which you might recall is
2:37involved in aggression and danger
2:39detection, is slightly larger in men's
2:41brains compared to women's. But this
2:44mere difference in size doesn't
2:45necessarily mean anything specific. You
2:48should keep this in mind. It’s merely
2:51a sign that might, for instance, point
2:53to certain differences between women
2:55and men, but it is not a rule. However,
3:00I need to add a side note here. Are
3:03these differences seen in all men and
3:05all women, or not? That’s a very
3:08interesting question. First of all, we
3:10need to develop a statistical
3:11understanding of these phenomena. What
3:14does that mean? For example, when we
3:16say that the hippocampus is, on average
3:18, larger in women than in men, what
3:20does it mean? Does it mean that every
3:23woman's hippocampus is larger than
3:25every man's? No. It simply means that
3:27when we look at the statistics, we see
3:29that one average is higher than the
3:31other. What is the result of that? You
3:32see that a good percentage of women
3:34have larger hippocampi than a good
3:36percentage of men, but there are also
3:38many men whose hippocampi are larger
3:40than women's. There are many women
3:41whose hippocampi are smaller than men's
3:43, or vice versa. The same applies to
3:45the amygdala, or conversely, to the
3:47corpus callosum. A very interesting
3:49conclusion that scientists draw from
3:50this statistical concept is that none
3:52of these are absolute differences
3:54between male and female brains. Meaning
3:56, for example, if I were to take two
3:58brains, put them in front of you, and
4:01ask you, "Sir, what is their sex?" You
4:03would have no way of identifying which
4:05is male and which is female, why?
4:07Because all these differences were
4:09statistical. You might have a male
4:11brain. It might have features such as a
4:13larger hippocampus. Even if its corpus
4:15callosum were larger and its amygdala
4:17smaller, like a woman's. Yet it could
4:19be a man—a perfectly healthy man with
4:21no sexual ambiguity. Wow, that's
4:23interesting; yes, it's like that. So,
4:25do be careful; these differences are
4:27not absolute at all, and they are by no
4:29means binary. That is precisely why
4:31structural examination is not
4:33necessarily enough. Now, we also need
4:35to have a, so to speak, "software"
4:37examination. Meaning, let's see how the
4:39wiring of male and female brains
4:41differs. Let's compare this wiring; how
4:45can we understand these differences in
4:47wiring? Often, we should examine
4:51behaviors rather than just looking at
4:53what is bigger or smaller, which might
4:55give us the least amount of information
4:57. Let's start with the most challenging
5:02question: Are men actually better
5:03drivers? And for instance, they say
5:06women easily find things that are lost;
5:08what's the deal with that? All of this
5:12comes back to a set of skills generally
5:15called spatial skills, or spatial
5:17abilities, which scientists categorize
5:19in different ways: one is spatial
5:21perception, meaning spatial
5:23understanding; another is mental
5:25rotation (I'll explain what each one
5:27means); and another is spatial
5:29visualization. These are different
5:34dimensions. You use these
5:35three-dimensional (spatial) skills in
5:37various daily tasks; just understanding
5:39what environment you're in, remembering
5:41where you are, how something passes by
5:43something else, or how one 3D object
5:45matches another 3D object; for example,
5:47in puzzles where you have to pick
5:48something up and put it into an object,
5:50you have to visualize it in 3D to be
5:52able to fit it inside. Or, for example,
5:54what does mental rotation mean? It
5:56means if you can rotate an object, you
5:59can rotate it in your mind and
6:00visualize it in three dimensions. This
6:02is a very interesting concept; for
6:04example, if you look at the tests, they
6:06put a 3D shape, and if you look from
6:07one side, it looks one way, and if you
6:09look from another, it's different, and
6:10now you have to determine if they are
6:12the same or not; you must have a 3D
6:13visualization to be able to identify
6:15them. It is very interesting to know
6:17that in different dimensions, when
6:18various studies were conducted, they
6:20saw that yes, in some of these spatial
6:22and 3D positioning tasks, men are
6:24better; meaning especially in spatial
6:26perception—that is, the spatial
6:27understanding of where everything is
6:29and what space it occupies and, for
6:31instance, how it can match another
6:32object—or in mental rotation, meaning
6:34this spatial rotation, men are better
6:36than women. But, for example, in this
6:38spatial visualization—like when you
6:40want to recall what a place looked like
6:42or what its space was like—the
6:44difference isn't necessarily very large
6:45, though it has still been shown that
6:47men are slightly better than women. Now
6:49, the subsequent research is also very
6:51interesting; for example, the greater
6:53the difference between the two genders
6:56in a 3D ability—for instance, if men
6:58are much better than women in a certain
7:00area—the sooner this difference
7:02starts to show itself at younger ages;
7:04meaning it is somewhat more fundamental
7:06and perhaps not so dependent on
7:08learning. But these are still a series
7:10of skill tests; can we demonstrate them
7:12in reality, too? It's very interesting;
7:14a series of studies have focused
7:16precisely on whether these differences
7:18actually manifest in practice. For
7:20instance, there is a study that
7:22compares aiming, map reading,
7:24wayfinding, and all these factors
7:26between men and women, showing that,
7:28yes, men are significantly better than
7:30women. (Parenthesis: "Significant" just
7:32means that a difference truly exists;
7:34it doesn't mean it’s necessarily huge
7:36. It could be a statistically
7:37significant difference that isn't
7:39particularly large, or it could be a
7:41very large and significant difference;
7:42this is nothing unusual.) For example,
7:44what did they do in this research? They
7:47created a virtual maze—the kind you
7:49sit and play—and the goal was to see
7:51how successful you could be at finding
7:53your way through this virtual maze. It
7:57was designed so that you are drowning;
7:59your character has to find a series of
8:01platforms to avoid drowning, and there
8:03are geometric cues you must use to
8:05reach those platforms safely. They
8:08observed that in this maze, men were
8:10much better and faster at navigating
8:12without drowning. They even included a
8:14control group where the platforms were
8:16fully visible and you didn't need to
8:18use cues to reach them, and in that
8:19scenario where the platforms were
8:21clearly marked, there was no difference
8:23between men and women. Some people
8:24raised the objection, "Hey, could it be
8:26that men find their way more easily
8:28just because they play more video games
8:30?" They replied, "No, look! It's the
8:33same game; as long as it's not a maze
8:35and the platform is visible, no
8:36difference was found between men and
8:38women." Or, for example, they conducted
8:40a much larger study; they placed 10
8:42waypoints—like flags or markers—
8:44that needed to be reached within an
8:46unknown 6-kilometer area, and they gave
8:48them maps to go and find them. And it's
8:50very interesting, we see again that men
8:52had better map-reading abilities and
8:54were able to find them faster.
8:56Furthermore, men's 3D skills and motor
8:58skills are better; meaning, for example
9:00, they can understand how something is
9:03moving at what speed, in what direction
9:05it is heading, when it will arrive
9:07somewhere, and their throwing ability
9:09is greater. One ability clearly shown
9:12to be better in men than women is that
9:14they can throw objects better; they can
9:16throw more accurately, and so on. All
9:18of this put together might show you why
9:21it appears that men are better drivers
9:23than women; it's because all these
9:24processes for the male nervous system
9:26are...what? It's easier; but very
9:29interestingly, there are some studies
9:31showing that women have better object
9:33memory. For example, there are studies
9:35where they put people in rooms with
9:37various objects; then they told them to
9:39memorize them, leave, and come back to
9:41see what changed; it's like our
9:43childhood games. And they had made some
9:45changes in there; some objects remained
9:47in their place. It shows that women
9:49perform significantly better than men
9:51in finding objects they had seen before
9:53and locating them in their places. Even
9:57a study conducted in 2005 showed that
9:59based on their spatial memory
10:01information, women can more easily and
10:03better find objects, find routes, and
10:05can even recall the location of food
10:08more easily. This is very interesting.
10:11Meaning, there is even a bias
10:13difference when that object or thing
10:14that is there happens to be what? Food.
10:17Now, the question is here. What is the
10:19origin of this difference
10:20physiologically and neurologically? Who
10:23are the main suspects that come to our
10:24mind? Testosterone and estrogen. It is
10:30very interesting to know that there are
10:32many studies in this field showing that
10:34if testosterone is to affect cognitive
10:37skills, its effects are mostly before
10:39and during puberty; it is not very
10:41important after puberty, and even
10:42higher testosterone after puberty may
10:45have negative effects. For example, in
10:50this discussion of 3D skills, it has
10:52been shown that yes, if you increase
10:54the level of testosterone after puberty
10:57, people's spatial and 3D skills even
10:59decrease. I will explain these more
11:02precisely and in detail in the future.
11:04But for example, there is another study
11:06that saw girls who were twins and their
11:08other twin was a boy. Their perception
11:13and spatial and 3D ability were higher
11:15compared to ordinary girls or girls
11:17whose twin was also a girl. Oh, how
11:20interesting. Why? Because as that boy
11:23is in the mother's womb and producing
11:25testosterone, a small amount of this
11:27testosterone leaks into the uterine
11:29space and leaves a small effect on his
11:31sister, and that same small effect
11:33causes that girl's ability in 3D
11:35perception to be significantly higher
11:37during the process of puberty and the
11:39development of that nervous system.
11:43However, it is interesting to know that
11:45the effect of estrogen is very
11:47paradoxical and interesting; apparently
11:49, you think testosterone increases 3D
11:51skills and estrogen is the opposite and
11:54causes a decrease, but it is
11:55interesting to know that it is not like
11:58that; it depends on its concentration.
12:01At very low to zero concentrations, it
12:03is interesting to know it has a
12:05negative effect, causes cognitive
12:07impairments, and makes women's 3D
12:09perception decrease. What is its effect
12:11at normal concentrations? Actually, it
12:14is positive at normal, lower
12:15concentrations—since you know women
12:17have significant estrogen fluctuations
12:19—but interestingly, at higher
12:21concentrations where estrogen levels
12:23are higher, it has a negative effect,
12:25meaning it causes their spatial
12:26perception and skill abilities to
12:28decrease. So, you see, we have a
12:30complex set of these factors. To put it
12:32very briefly, never limit any
12:34biological phenomenon to a series of
12:36simple explanations, like "this one has
12:38more testosterone, that one has less
12:40estrogen, and so on." These factors are
12:42creating differences, and we can see
12:43how much more complex it is than what
12:45one might think. Now, from an
12:46evolutionary perspective, why do these
12:48differences exist? We talked about this
12:50before in the evolutionary psychology
12:52episode; I want to talk to you about it
12:54from a new perspective now. It is
12:55interesting to know that this
12:57difference in orientation and
12:58navigation is not specific to humans.
13:00Don't think it appeared in humans for
13:02the first time. It is much older. We
13:04have this in many other animal species
13:06as well. Especially in polygynous
13:09species. It has been seen in many
13:13rodents, for example. Now, think about
13:16why a species is polygynous—polygyny
13:18meaning that one male wants to have
13:20several females. What features does it
13:23have? Instead of staying with his mate
13:27and their offspring after mating, this
13:29male moves away from the female and
13:31tries to discover another female and
13:33bring her into his harem, or even mate
13:35with her separately without forming a
13:37harem. What is the result? In these
13:42species, the male's main job is finding
13:44females and then attracting them. Now,
13:46a male who can cover these distances,
13:49have good navigation, and possess a 3D
13:51spatial perception—what is the result
13:53? The probability that he can find more
13:55females is higher, and his fitness
13:57increases. In other words, there is a
13:59concept of sexual selection here. Males
14:01who find females more easily, what is
14:02their successful reproduction rate? It
14:04is higher, and their survival is also
14:06higher. There is a selective pressure
14:08here toward males who have a greater
14:10ability to navigate 3D space. It is
14:12very interesting to know that usually,
14:14in monogamous species where the male
14:16stays with his mate the whole time to
14:18protect the offspring, you do not see
14:20these differences. You see that the
14:24male and female's 3D navigation ability
14:26and 3D perception are almost...
14:28identical. But in polygamous and
14:30polygynous species, it is completely
14:32different. In humans, the story takes
14:34on other dimensions as well. One of the
14:38main skills a male gains with the help
14:40of this 3D perception is the ability to
14:42produce tools. Evolutionarily, it has
14:45been shown that men who had the ability
14:48to produce better tools were also more
14:50attractive to women. On the other hand,
14:52men also had the ability to secure
14:54better prey because of the better tools
14:55they produced. But producing good tools
14:58requires 3D spatial perception. It
15:00requires this spatial rotation ability,
15:02to perform mental rotations and have a
15:043D perception. That’s why, if you
15:07recall our previous evolutionary
15:09psychology video, this is likely why
15:11jewelry, sharp, shiny, and cutting
15:13objects that demonstrate high manual
15:16dexterity in men are attractive to
15:18women. This again shows the
15:20evolutionary pressure on men to develop
15:22deeper and more accurate 3D perception.
15:25Hunting itself, which was often
15:27considered a specialized male task,
15:29required these strong 3D motion and
15:32spatial skills. Let me add a small side
15:35note: there was a study and article
15:37that trended a while ago, even on
15:39Instagram, suggesting that fossil
15:41evidence from the Paleolithic era,
15:43about 30,000 to 40,000 years ago,
15:45showed women buried with hunting tools,
15:48indicating that women hunted in some
15:50tribes. This is absolutely true; there
15:53is no denial that in some tribes women
15:55hunted, and there is no insistence that
15:58only men hunted. But you must be
16:00careful; for example, those stone tools
16:03and the evidence are currently limited
16:05to the Neolithic or, say, 30,000 to
16:0740,000 years ago. In this era, humans
16:10were producing very good tools and had
16:12highly advanced and complex group lives
16:15. These tools were such that yes, women
16:18could easily hunt too, and societies
16:20were becoming more advanced. But the
16:23discussion about males hunting compared
16:26to females and the dominance of males
16:28in hunting is not for 30,000 years ago,
16:30not for 50,000 years ago, and not for
16:33100,000 years ago, but for the period
16:35when we perhaps first see evidence of
16:37stone tools and hunting, and at that
16:39time, we clearly observe sexual
16:41dimorphism between the women and men
16:44living in that period, which might be
16:46around 2.5 million years ago for Homo
16:48habilis. So, this scenario isn't quite
16:52that everything suddenly fell apart;
16:54yes, the idea that only men hunted was
16:56wrong, but the idea that there was no
16:59evolutionary pressure and that it was
17:01100%equal is also...wrong. We’ve
17:05brought the story this far together,
17:07but are the cognitive and epistemic
17:09differences in human and female brains
17:11limited only to this 3D and spatial
17:13perception ability? No. One of the
17:16other main differences that exist,
17:18which we talk about constantly in our
17:20daily lives—especially with our
17:22mothers, sisters, and particularly our
17:24partners and spouses—regarding the
17:26understanding and cognition of people
17:28and the surrounding environment, let's
17:30discuss two terms about it together.
17:33One is the ability to systemize, and
17:35the other is the ability to empathize.
17:38To put it very briefly, it is said that
17:41men's brains are better systemizers and
17:43women's brains are better empathizers.
17:46Now let's see what this statement
17:48actually means. You see, systemizing is
17:51the brain's ability to categorize and
17:53organize, which is largely related to
17:55objects and abstract concepts. Like
17:58saying, well, you know, look at this
18:00car, this is, I don't know, a Benz,
18:02this is a BMW, so which model of Benz
18:05is this? To know that model, to come
18:07and look, say this is a Toyota Camry,
18:09this is a Toyota Corolla, the Toyota
18:10Camry up to the year 2010 has this line
18:12, it looks like this, and so on; good
18:14categorization, good classification,
18:16deals very well with objects and
18:18especially abstract issues. But women
18:20usually internalize to understand the
18:22things around them. What does this
18:24internalization mean? It means
18:27understanding the surrounding
18:28environment by feeling it within
18:30oneself, touching it, and then
18:32recognizing it. It's a very strange
18:35thing, isn't it? No. If you pay
18:36attention, systemizing is better for
18:39understanding inanimate objects and
18:41abstract matters. To form laws. To
18:44create a bureaucratic administrative
18:46system. To create rules and protocols
18:48to build a car with. To build a factory
18:50, to build a television. Systemizing is
18:52much better. But systemizing isn't very
18:54good for understanding people.
18:56Internalization is good. What does
18:58internalization mean? It means I see
18:59this person, I see what they are doing
19:01right now. For example, I see they are
19:03eating. When they are eating, a
19:05systemizer says: this is an entity that
19:07is eating, therefore it is hungry. But
19:09women—let's not say women, let's say
19:11the concept of internalization, which
19:13women often do well and are better at
19:14than men. She puts herself in the other
19:16person's place and says, "How hungry
19:18they must be." She feels it within
19:20herself, perhaps even that hunger is
19:21evoked, and then she understands the
19:23other person. And it's very interesting
19:25when we see that when women use this
19:27internalization system for objects and
19:29systems, for example, she says, "My car
19:31isn't feeling well today." You see,
19:33when a man wants to talk about his car,
19:36he says, "Sir, it's not working, for
19:38instance, I don't know, no matter how
19:40much I start it, the car won't turn on.
19:42" A woman says, "My car isn't feeling
19:44well today, whatever it is, I don't
19:46know what the problem is today, it's
19:48not cooperating with me, it doesn't
19:49like me today." It's as if that car has
19:52a personality and an identity, and she
19:54is understanding, internalizing, and
19:56expressing it. An important parenthesis
19:58again. Do not think that only men
20:00systemize and only women internalize.
20:02No. Both men systemize and internalize,
20:04and women both systemize and
20:06internalize. It has just been shown
20:08that this ability is significantly
20:10different between men and women. Men
20:12are more inclined toward systemizing.
20:14Women are more inclined toward
20:15internalization. That is why we see men
20:17perform well in jobs like mechanics and
20:19such, because they work with objects
20:21and easily build systems, but women are
20:24very good at communication skills, they
20:26understand and connect very well. That
20:28is why they tend toward jobs that
20:30involve communication. For example,
20:32sometimes we think why most
20:34receptionists are women—some say it's
20:36for income or other things—but one of
20:38the reasons is likely this very ability
20:41for good communication. Certainly, a
20:43woman can connect and understand other
20:45people much more easily, statistically
20:48speaking, compared to a man. Again,
20:50statistically, there might be a man
20:52whose systemizing ability is better
20:54than a woman's, or vice versa. Now,
20:56looking at some research, for instance,
20:59various studies have shown that women's
21:01performance in mind-reading is slightly
21:03better than men's. What is she doing
21:05exactly? She sees the facial gestures,
21:08the way they are acting, and says, "He
21:10is lying." Look at how well mothers
21:12detect lies; it has been shown that
21:14women are better at decoding non-verbal
21:16cues like facial expressions and tone.
21:18Meaning, you are upset, and a woman
21:20understands it. Now, go tell a man you
21:22are upset, and he won't get it. These
21:24things sort of explain our stereotypes.
21:26Stereotypes, meaning these behavioral
21:28cliches we see; we see that, no, there
21:30is a logic behind them. Or, for example
21:32, studies show that women, compared to
21:34men, are more drawn to intimate
21:36relationships. For instance, even in
21:38cross-cultural studies. Someone might
21:39come along and say, "Sir, what you are
21:41saying is cultural." A culture says
21:43women should be like this, men should
21:45be like that. But what is meant by
21:47cross-cultural studies? It means when
21:49they looked at even matriarchal
21:51cultures, looked at Scandinavian
21:53cultures, and diverse cultures where
21:55men and women might be completely equal
21:57economically, they still see that, at
21:59all ages, women are more
22:01person-oriented and men are more
22:03object-oriented compared to each other.
22:05A point we really must pay attention to
22:08is that we cannot ignore the effect of
22:10culture in any way. Culture definitely
22:12has an impact. In fact, many of these
22:14differences are highlighted through
22:16culture. Let me give an example so the
22:18point becomes clear to you. Suppose we
22:21have a child whose innate ability for
22:23empathy and systemizing from childhood
22:26is completely identical. Let’s say, a
22:31girl or a boy. But compared to the
22:34other, one simply has a stronger
22:36inclination toward empathy. Meaning,
22:38even the intelligence itself is what?
22:40It is the same. They just have a
22:41stronger inclination toward empathy.
22:43The result of this inclination toward
22:45empathy is that the games they choose,
22:47the bias they have toward games, is
22:48playing with dolls or interactive games
22:50. But the one who likes systemizing
22:52more—even if their talents are the
22:54same—prefers to play with mechanical
22:57bulldozers, shovels, and such. These
22:59slight and minute differences lead to a
23:01path being formed where these two
23:02populations become completely different
23:04from each other. One keeps playing
23:06house more, the other keeps playing
23:07with toy guns, I don't know. One keeps
23:09hanging out more with girls, for
23:11instance, the other hangs out more with
23:12boys; one goes to play soccer, the
23:14other ends up just talking, and what
23:16happened here? Those same small
23:17differences lead to large differences.
23:19This is a very important point. The
23:21point is, this is why we don't consider
23:23culture ineffective, but we have a lot
23:24of evidence that these biases and these
23:26differences are somehow more
23:28fundamental than culture. Let me
23:29mention a few interesting studies in
23:31this field. For example, when boys are
23:34compared with girls, they stare more at
23:37mechanical objects, but girls stare
23:39more at faces. For instance, at 12
23:42months old, it has been observed that
23:44baby girls have more eye contact with
23:46their moms compared to baby boys; there
23:47is even another study saying the amount
23:49of eye contact has an inverse
23:51relationship with testosterone. You
23:52might be asking yourself right now, "
23:54Wait, do small children even have
23:55testosterone?" Yes, boys have
23:57testosterone even at that age before
23:59puberty; it's just that during puberty,
24:01the concentration of testosterone
24:03becomes very high, which, for example,
24:05in cross-cultural studies has shown
24:07again that boys look at objects more,
24:09are more aggressive, and their social
24:11interactions with others are more
24:13dominant—you've seen the typical
24:15stereotype of a tough boy in the alley,
24:17acting like a bully to others, forcibly
24:20taking another's snack, hitting someone
24:22else; girls cry more when faced with
24:24troubles than boys, and the likelihood
24:26that they will cry if something upsets
24:28them is what? It's higher. On the other
24:30hand, when boys were in the same
24:32environmental conditions as girls, they
24:34were more attracted to mechanical tools
24:36, and girls were more attracted to
24:38dolls, all of which we explained to you
24:40earlier. What is the cause of these
24:42differences? Genetically, usually in
24:44hunter-gatherer populations, girls and
24:47women generally had a gathering role.
24:50Along with this gathering, they would
24:52help their relatives. They would help
24:55other women, having a stable atmosphere
24:57of connections, helping each other
24:59raise children and nurse them, and the
25:02formation of this social standing among
25:04themselves was very important to them;
25:06contrary to your belief, girls actually
25:08have a hierarchy, so to speak, or a
25:10social classification among themselves.
25:13Boys, on the other hand, were more
25:15involved in processes like hunting.
25:17Although they would also do some
25:18animal-related things and were again in
25:20competition to be able to win over the
25:22females. To gain better mates, hunt,
25:24and have a greater role in the group.
25:27And to gain a higher social standing in
25:29the group. As a result, it was more
25:31important for them to get ahead of
25:33others through their skills in hunting,
25:35in strength, and in the use of tools.
25:37So, those among men who acquired this
25:39trait had greater evolutionary fitness.
25:42But on the other hand, women who were
25:43better at networking and building
25:45connections had greater evolutionary
25:46fitness. That turned out nicely. Right?
25:48Let's make the discussion even more
25:50interesting with two fascinating
25:51genetic conditions. Of course, it's
25:53partially genetic and environmental,
25:55but the genetic part is dominant. We
25:57have a condition you're likely familiar
25:59with, called autism, which is more
26:01recently referred to as ASD, or Autism
26:03Spectrum Disorder. This means they say
26:06it's not a binary condition where you
26:08either have it or you don't; rather,
26:10it’s a spectrum of disorders where
26:12even many people who seem healthy to us
26:14might have some level of it. It’s
26:16very interesting. One description some
26:18evolutionary psychologists have for
26:20autism—which may not be entirely
26:22accurate but is interesting—is that
26:24they describe these brains as "
26:26hyper-male." Now you might think, "Oh,
26:29does that mean GigaChad, high
26:31testosterone levels?" No, the term "
26:33male brain" here refers to cognitive
26:35masculinity, not biological gender. For
26:38instance, in these cases, it has been
26:40observed that empathizing is minimal—
26:43or perhaps zero, depending on the
26:45spectrum—while systemizing is at its
26:47maximum. Some of these autistic
26:49individuals have such high systemizing
26:51abilities—possessing great cognitive
26:53skills, good language, and
26:55extraordinary learning capabilities—
26:57that they are actually called "Aspies,"
26:59which is a specific form of autism.
27:01They are, in fact, incredibly
27:03intelligent and capable people. But
27:06when the discussion turns to emotions,
27:08understanding others, empathy, sympathy
27:11, or complex feelings like pride,
27:13happiness, or depression, they don't
27:15have much of an understanding of them.
27:21Autistic individuals sometimes have so
27:23much trouble understanding others that
27:26they fail tests like the Sally-Anne
27:28test—which I'll explain later—and
27:30false-belief tests. This is while even
27:33people with Down syndrome do not fail
27:35or struggle with these tests. It’s a
27:37very strange thing. Meaning their
27:38cognitive skills in that area are that
27:40poor. It’s really fascinating. I mean
27:41, you see someone who might be able to
27:43solve complex mathematical equations
27:44but fails the Sally-Anne or
27:45false-belief tests, which I will
27:47explain to you. They don't even have
27:48the ability to read from a person's
27:50eyes what they are feeling; for
27:52instance, whether they are happy or not
27:54. These individuals, specifically those
27:56with Asperger's, after a while, because
27:58they are intelligent, develop a
28:00capability where they say, "Aha, this
28:02is how they look when they're angry;
28:04most of the time when they’ve acted
28:06like this before, they were angry." So,
28:09they learn it through their intellect;
28:11they don't grasp or internalize it. You
28:13and I, through internalization, often
28:15understand how a person feels. Just by
28:17seeing someone crying, we ourselves get
28:20a sense of wanting to cry, we feel bad,
28:22and then we understand them. Let's move
28:24forward and talk about this a bit more.
28:26Now, let's talk about the False Belief
28:28Test and the Sally-Anne test. Let me
28:30tell you about the False Belief Test
28:32first. Suppose you are given a pack of
28:34Smarties; what should be inside a pack
28:36of Smarties? Obviously, Smarties. Great
28:39. You open it and find pencils. This is
28:41strange, right? You were definitely
28:43expecting to see what inside the
28:45Smarties pack? Not pencils, sorry,
28:47Smarties. But you see pencils. Now,
28:49they do an experiment where they show
28:51children this Smarties pack and then
28:53open it to show them it contains
28:55pencils. Then, they ask the child, "If
28:57I close the lid and show this pack to
28:59someone else, what do they think is
29:01inside?" Well, naturally, as a healthy
29:04person, you would say, "Well, they
29:06don't know there are pencils inside,"
29:08and you would say, "When they see this,
29:10they will think there are Smarties
29:12inside." But the interesting point is
29:14here: some children, those under 4
29:16years old to be more precise, get this
29:18wrong. They fail the test and say the
29:20person thinks there are pencils inside.
29:23Meaning, when they are asked what
29:24someone else who doesn't know what's
29:26inside would think, they say they think
29:28there are pencils inside. Isn't that
29:30strange? But children over 4 years old
29:32succeed in this test and say, "No, look
29:34, that person will think there are
29:36Smarties inside." What does this mean?
29:39It means the person lacks the ability
29:41to read minds; that is, they cannot
29:42imagine what is going on in someone
29:44else's mind. Before the age of 4, they
29:47can't; after 4, they can. After 4, they
29:49can think for themselves, "Hey, they
29:51don't know there are pencils in here,
29:53so what should they say?" People with
29:55autism fail this test and say what is
29:57inside is pencils. Let's move to the
29:59Sally-Anne test. The Sally-Anne test is
30:01also very interesting. It's a play with
30:04two dolls, one named Sally and one
30:06named Anne. These creative scientists
30:08set up a show. It's interesting; a doll
30:10named Sally takes some marbles and
30:12hides them in a box, then she leaves.
30:14After she has left, Anne comes into the
30:17scene, takes the marbles out of the box
30:19, and puts them, for example, in a
30:21basket. Both the basket and the box are
30:23covered, and when you put something in
30:25them, you can't see it from the outside
30:27. Ann comes into the research setup and
30:33asks the child, "My dear boy, my dear
30:35girl, could you tell me where Ann
30:36thinks the marble is right now?""In the
30:42box or in the basket?" Children under 4
30:45years old answer, "She will go and look
30:47in the box.""She thinks the marble is
30:49in the box." Whereas children over 4
30:51years old say, "No, well, she doesn't
30:53know, does she?""She will go and look
30:55in the basket." This is again something
30:57similar to the Sally-Anne test, which
30:59shows that they cannot read the
31:01person's mind to know that she doesn't
31:03know where the marble is, because she
31:05thought it was in the box, not in the
31:07basket. Autism also passes this test.
31:10There are several interesting things
31:12about autism, one being that its
31:13prevalence and frequency are higher in
31:16boys and, cognitively speaking, it is
31:18similar to the male brain. Now, we have
31:20an opposite spectrum called Williams
31:22syndrome, which is sometimes
31:24metaphorically—though not necessarily
31:26accurately—called having an "overly
31:28female brain." What does that mean? It
31:30means they are cognitively similar to
31:32women. It is a very rare disease,
31:34affecting one in every 25,000 people.
31:37Maybe it's not that rare, but it is
31:39rare. There are a series of
31:40characteristics in Williams syndrome;
31:42they are very sensitive to sound,
31:44experience premature skin aging, and
31:46have cardiovascular problems. Their
31:48noses are broad, they have large ears,
31:50and their irises have a star-like
31:52pattern. They are called "star people"
31:54or magical people. They have a low IQ
31:57and very poor spatial ability. They
31:59often lose their way home and cannot
32:01perform many simple spatial activities
32:03that seem obvious to us. It’s to the
32:05point where they can't even put objects
32:07on a shelf; that’s simple, but it
32:09requires the spatial skill to pick it
32:11up, understand which space to put it in
32:13, and how to place it there. Sometimes
32:16they can't even tie their own shoelaces
32:18because their spatial perception is so
32:20poor. But it is very interesting that
32:22they have strangely high verbal skills;
32:24it's not normal at all. For example,
32:26they use very eloquent words, words
32:29that a normal person wouldn't use. If I
32:31were to ask you to name a country, you
32:33might say America or England, or name a
32:35city like Washington or Tehran; they
32:37might say "Constantinople"—well, I
32:39said the Persian name—or they might
32:42mention a city that is only written in
32:44history books, some strange name. They
32:46love to use these big, fancy words that
32:48aren't easy for us to say. Despite all
32:50their cognitive impairments, their
32:52ability to recognize faces is not only
32:54normal but sometimes even better; for
32:56instance, they can even recognize an
32:58inverted face. They can easily connect
33:00emotions to that face and say how that
33:02person is feeling right now. But there
33:04is a very interesting point. Even
33:06though they use these words eloquently
33:08and complexly, they don't necessarily
33:10have a deep understanding of those
33:12words. They only use them verbally. But
33:14they don't necessarily know what it
33:16deeply means. It seems similar to a
33:18woman's brain. No. These were the
33:19interesting cognitive differences we
33:21discussed between male and female
33:22brains so far. But the rest of the
33:24story is interesting. With other
33:25diseases and processes I will mention,
33:27you'll realize the subject can be even
33:30deeper and more fascinating. Now we
33:32want to talk about sexual orientation.
33:34What should we call it? Let's translate
33:36it as, for example, sexual orientation.
33:37Meaning, for instance, the sexual
33:39inclinations people develop. How, at
33:41times, one leans toward being a man,
33:42another toward being a woman, and then
33:44as a man, feels attracted to women, and
33:46as a woman, feels attracted to men. I'm
33:48sure you will find this part very
33:49engaging. Be sure to stay with me until
33:51the end. Look, one of the ways we can
33:56understand the sex differences that
33:58arise between men and women is through
34:00hormonal and sexual disorder scenarios
34:02that occur in strange ways; for example
34:05, this interesting disease, CAH or
34:07Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia, which
34:09is the congenital overactivity of the
34:11adrenal glands; it has its own story
34:14when it occurs in girls or in men, but
34:16let's see what happens in girls; the
34:18fact is that the testes aren't our only
34:20source of testosterone. Human adrenal
34:26glands also produce testosterone. That
34:28is why we always have a certain amount
34:30of testosterone in women too. It's very
34:32interesting. For example, the pimples
34:34that women sometimes get. The fact that
34:36their voice gets a little deeper at
34:37puberty. The fact that they have body
34:39hair, for instance, is partly the
34:41effect of this testosterone being
34:42produced in their adrenal glands. In a
34:45normal state, it has a normal, low
34:47level, and is completely okay. But we
34:49have a disease that congenitally causes
34:52the adrenal glands to become overactive
34:54, enlarge, undergo excessive cell
34:56division, and consequently produce a
34:58lot of testosterone; there is a very
35:00subtle point here: if it's a male, it
35:03causes certain symptoms, but if it's a
35:05girl, what happens? They say if we
35:09examine this testosterone, we see it
35:11increases sharply during the fetal
35:13stage and goes so far as to bias the
35:15gender toward what? Toward being a boy.
35:20But interestingly, despite all this, it
35:22is usually diagnosed and treated well
35:25during infancy. This means hormonal
35:28changes and various drug therapies help
35:30prevent this gender shift process from
35:32occurring and allow the correct gender
35:34development to take place. Despite all
35:38this, the mere fact that they were
35:40exposed to higher concentrations of
35:42testosterone, whether during the fetal
35:44or neonatal stage, leads to significant
35:46changes compared to healthy girls. For
35:51instance, it has been observed that
35:53they significantly prefer boys 'toys
35:56and engage more in boys' games. They
35:59are also more likely to become
36:01homosexual or even bisexual. Even with
36:05good treatment starting from infancy,
36:08they are significantly more likely than
36:10other girls in society to want to
36:11become men and undergo gender
36:13reassignment surgeries. Interestingly,
36:18some studies show their 3D spatial
36:20ability is like that of men—or at
36:22least closer to men and higher than
36:24other girls. So, you can see how
36:28impactful testosterone can be during
36:30the fetal, pre-pubertal, and pubertal
36:33stages. Another side of the story is
36:36also interesting: another condition we
36:39have is 5-alpha-reductase deficiency
36:41type 2. What is the deal with this?
36:46This enzyme plays a crucial role in
36:48body tissues by converting testosterone
36:50into dihydrotestosterone, which is more
36:53active, and that is why it plays a
36:55major part in forming secondary sexual
36:57characteristics. Now, there are some
37:02men who genetically lack this enzyme or
37:04it does not function properly. The
37:07result is that the effect of
37:09testosterone is low in them, and as a
37:11result, they start growing up as girls.
37:13In fact, everyone knows them as girls.
37:16Testosterone is present, but it cannot
37:18have much of an effect because, before
37:20puberty, the concentration of
37:21testosterone is low, and the enzyme
37:23does not convert it into the active
37:24form required for effectiveness. It is
37:26only when they reach puberty that they
37:28suddenly develop male characteristics.
37:31These individuals have female genitalia
37:33. As soon as they reach puberty, their
37:37genitalia become male. It is very
37:39interesting. Why? Because at puberty,
37:42testosterone levels themselves become
37:44very high, which compensates for the
37:46enzyme deficiency, and then male
37:47secondary sexual characteristics emerge
37:49. Yes, suddenly you see that male
37:51genitalia form in them. How? You might
37:54wonder. As you know, in female
37:56genitalia, there is a part called the
37:58clitoris, which is, in a way, a very,
38:00very small male penis. When it is
38:02exposed to high concentrations of
38:04androgens or male sex hormones, it
38:06grows, and officially, at puberty, you
38:09suddenly see that they develop male
38:11genitalia. It is very interesting that
38:12studies and observations also show that
38:14these individuals mostly want to
38:16continue their lives as men. Meaning
38:18they want to be treated accordingly and
38:19be helped so that their gender identity
38:21and future life can be in the form of a
38:23man. Another cool condition we have is
38:26CAIS, which stands for Complete
38:28Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome. Let me
38:31explain what that means; it's quite
38:33simple. Testosterone, as a hormone,
38:35needs to bind to a receptor to have an
38:38effect, right? Well, these individuals
38:41either lack this receptor or it doesn't
38:43function at all. The testosterone is
38:46there, the XY chromosomes are fine,
38:48everything is okay, but none of the
38:50body's cells respond to this
38:52testosterone. The problem is with the
38:55receptors—check your receptors, how
38:57funny am I? These individuals grow up
39:01completely as girls with female anatomy
39:03, and when they reach puberty and don't
39:05experience menstruation, they visit a
39:07doctor and finally realize what's going
39:10on. They get examined and see that yes,
39:14this lady, despite having seemingly
39:16female anatomy, has no ovaries and
39:18instead has testes that remained
39:20internal—they didn't descend or leave
39:22the abdominal cavity. They identify as
39:26women and prefer men as their husbands
39:28and sexual partners. Usually, they
39:30undergo surgery to remove the testes
39:33and then take female hormones.
39:35Naturally, these poor souls are
39:37infertile and will remain so for the
39:39rest of their lives. Interestingly,
39:43they even have less spatial ability
39:45than regular women, and the reason is
39:47clear; if you recall, women have a
39:49small amount of testosterone naturally
39:52that helps in the formation of these
39:54cognitive processes, but these
39:55individuals don't even have that amount
39:58of testosterone. Well, by now the
40:00subject should have become a bit more
40:02interesting for you. The topic of
40:04gender is not as simple as we think.
40:06Now, we want to examine the differences
40:08in brain centers and brain activities
40:10related to gender. For example, one of
40:13the interesting things in human
40:14ethology is the concept of pheromones.
40:17You might have heard of pheromones;
40:18they are a collection of chemical
40:20molecules released as scents that
40:21provide certain signals. Throughout the
40:23course of human evolution, the
40:24importance of pheromones has decreased,
40:26and you can see, for instance, that
40:27other species like mice and other
40:29mammals rely on them heavily, but it's
40:30minimal in humans. I talked to you
40:32about the reason for this in the
40:33episode regarding the evolution of the
40:35brain, darkness, and human intelligence
40:37. It’s because once we left dark
40:38environments and moved into the light,
40:40we became less dependent on our sense
40:42of smell compared to other mammals.
40:44That is why, for example, you see other
40:46mammals have specific organs to detect
40:49pheromones, but in humans, pheromones
40:51are detected in almost the same place
40:53where odors are detected. So we do have
40:55pheromones, and specifically, the
40:57best-known pheromones are sexual
40:59pheromones, which is very interesting.
41:02For instance, the well-known female
41:04sexual pheromone is estratetraenol, and
41:06on the other hand, the male sexual
41:09pheromone is androstadienone. You see
41:11that these are secreted from the body
41:13surface during sexual activity, and
41:15they effectively give the other person
41:17that sense of sexual arousal. I don't
41:20know if you've heard people say "she
41:22smells feminine" or "he smells
41:24masculine," or someone saying "your
41:26scent makes me go crazy." These are
41:29concepts that actually exist in
41:30neuroscience and aren't strange at all.
41:33The story is exactly this: they are so
41:35effective that even in very low
41:37concentrations, they cause sexual
41:39stimulation and arousal, to the extent
41:41that it might not even reach your
41:43conscious awareness. What does that
41:45mean? It means you don't even realize
41:46what this smell is. You don't even feel
41:48a smell at all. You don't perceive any
41:50scent. You don't feel anything, but you
41:52get sexually aroused. Really? Yes. Now,
41:54let's take a moment to look at this
41:56figure. What is the figure doing? It is
41:58showing the effect of different
42:00pheromones on various brain centers in
42:02different people. What does that mean?
42:03For example, that male sexual pheromone
42:06. We call it AND, short for androgen,
42:08and it is presented to a series of
42:10brain centers in the hypothalamus of
42:13heterosexual women—these normal women
42:15get stimulated—but in hetero men, it
42:17doesn't get stimulated or show activity
42:20. Now, where is the interesting point?
42:24If we take this same AND and expose
42:26homosexual or gay men to it, we see
42:28that it stimulates those same centers.
42:31What about the other side of the story?
42:34What if we use female pheromones? Well,
42:38female pheromones normally and
42:40naturally stimulate areas near the
42:42hypothalamus in men. But if we expose
42:47homosexual or lesbian women to them, it
42:50has the same effect. Although it has no
42:55effect on heterosexual and normal women
42:57. See, it shows that, after all, it
43:00seems a part of these differences also
43:02lies in the neuroscience of the matter.
43:05It might be a bit simplistic to say
43:07it's just a matter of choice, as some
43:09suggest. Biologically, we can show
43:12certain differences to an extent. One
43:16common trait found between heterosexual
43:18women and gay men is that the left and
43:20right amygdalae are strongly connected.
43:25This strong connection is somewhat
43:27characteristic of the female brain and
43:29is also observed in gay men. Conversely
43:33, we don't see such strong connectivity
43:36in heterosexual men, nor in lesbian
43:38women. To summarize briefly, when you
43:43look at different parts of the brain,
43:45you find that the brains of gay men are
43:47similar to women's, and the brains of
43:49lesbian women are, to some extent,
43:51similar to men's. However, are these
43:55results definitive? Does this mean
43:58science has found the answer? No, these
44:02are preliminary studies that are only
44:04providing us with some clues and signs.
44:08But the last thing I would like to
44:10discuss with you is whether gender is a
44:12spectrum or not. You see, friends and
44:15colleagues define two different forms.
44:17Well, as far as my limited knowledge
44:19goes. A concept called gender is
44:21introduced, and a concept called
44:23sexuality. Sexuality is considered to
44:25be the physiological trait. Meaning,
44:27what are the sexual organs? Whether
44:29they are male sexual organs or female
44:30sexual organs. On the other hand, they
44:33consider gender to be the female brain
44:35and the male brain, and they might say
44:37that a person could have a female brain
44:39in a male body. Here, further
44:41complexities arise, and I don't want to
44:43make it more complicated; they might
44:45add that someone with a female brain
44:47could have different sexual
44:49orientations. But to keep it simple, we
44:51say we have a female brain in a male
44:54body and vice versa, a male brain in a
44:56female body, which in turn explains
44:58many concepts like homosexuality, being
45:01gay, or being lesbian. There is a very
45:03important point here. One perspective
45:05is that these differences are caused by
45:07physiological ambiguity of reproductive
45:10organs, meaning it's genetic and not a
45:12choice, so why don't you have empathy
45:14for them? No, look, we have enough
45:16studies now that this issue is almost
45:19clear. At most, 1 to 2 percent of the
45:21population is born with ambiguous
45:23reproductive organs—those cases of
45:25conditions I mentioned, like CAH or
45:28others. However, the volume and
45:30statistics of homosexuality, being gay
45:32or lesbian, do not necessarily
45:34correspond to this sexual ambiguity. So
45:37, what happens that a person might be
45:39male but have feminine tendencies—
45:41meaning they like to sleep with another
45:43man—or be female but have masculine
45:45tendencies and want to sleep with
45:47another woman? Where is the root of
45:50these behavioral differences? Someone
45:52might say, "Well, there is a mismatch
45:54between brain and body for some
45:56biological or genetic reason." Let me
45:59tell you about the most up-to-date
46:00studies. Look, for this genetic
46:02mismatch to occur, one would have to be
46:05very unlucky. From a simple
46:06evolutionary perspective, all the male
46:09systems and reproductive organs that
46:11have evolved are very costly, so
46:13logically, there should be masculine
46:15behavior to ensure survival, and the
46:17same goes for females. Therefore,
46:19evolution has "tightened these screws"
46:21genetically to keep these traits
46:23together. That’s why it is extremely
46:26unlikely for an individual to be
46:28genetically gay or lesbian; one would
46:30have to be genetically very unlucky to
46:32develop a male body but have female
46:34sexual tendencies. So, what is the
46:36difference? What causes homosexual
46:38individuals to exist? We recorded a
46:41detailed episode about this before, but
46:43this time I want to talk about it from
46:45a more neuroscience perspective. The
46:48main evidence shows that the most
46:50practical and strongest factor in how
46:52people become homosexual depends more
46:54than anything on the influence of their
46:56prenatal environment, followed by the
46:58cultural factors we discussed in
47:00psychology. How is the prenatal
47:02environment influential? It’s very
47:05interesting; there are studies showing
47:07that the level of testosterone a child
47:09is exposed to during the fetal stage
47:11plays a significant role in their
47:13sexual orientation. For example, if
47:15women are in a womb where they are next
47:18to a twin brother, the probability of
47:20them becoming lesbian is higher.
47:22Conversely, men who are exposed to
47:24lower levels of testosterone during the
47:26fetal stage are more likely to be
47:28homosexual. Now, what interesting and
47:30cool research do we have in this field?
47:32It's very interesting. It has been
47:35shown that maternal stress during
47:37pregnancy has an impact on the
47:39probability of her son becoming gay or
47:41homosexual. How so? It is very
47:44interesting. During pregnancy, if a
47:46mother is stressed, the level of
47:48cortisol hormone rises. The hormone
47:50Kurdiol belongs to the category of
47:51steroid hormones. Its precursor
47:55structure is cholesterol, and it has
47:57been shown that at high concentrations,
48:00it can compete with testosterone and
48:02estrogen, thereby causing issues with
48:04sexual orientation in both girls and
48:06boys. Meaning it can make both boys and
48:11girls more likely to be homosexual.
48:13Another interesting scenario is this.
48:16If a mother has had previous
48:18pregnancies with boys, the likelihood
48:20of her next son being homosexual
48:22increases—not necessarily as a rule,
48:25but purely as a probabilistic
48:26discussion. Where does its root lie?
48:31When a mother has had previous male
48:33children, the androgen receptors
48:34present in the boy's body might, with
48:37some probability, do what to the
48:38mother's immune system? Stimulate it
48:41and cause it to react; what is the
48:43result of that? It is possible that the
48:45boy's testosterone receptors become
48:46compromised, increasing the likelihood
48:48of him being "trapped" or increasing
48:49the probability of him becoming
48:51homosexual. This turned out to be a
48:52very detailed and awesome episode. I
48:54hope you enjoyed it. Don't forget to
48:56like and comment. These evolution
48:57episodes are becoming very
48:59time-consuming and heavy for me. I hope
49:01you enjoyed it, and please know that
49:03nothing gives me energy like your likes
49:05and comments. I would appreciate it if
49:07you shared this with your friends if
49:08you liked it. Good luck. Goodbye.

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